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general

GUIDE

to THE
AMERICAN
MUSEUM

OF NATURAL

HISTORY

SCIENCE GUIDE NO. 118

Revised Edition published by
MAN AND NATURE PUBLICATIONS
The American Museum of Natural History

New York 24, N. Y.

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EXTERIOR OF THE THEODORE ROOSEVELT MEMORIAL BUILDING.

CONTENTS

NATURE — THE ENVIRONMENT OF MAN 7

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY 7

GENERAL INFORMATION 9

ADMISSION 9

MEMBERSHIP 9

HOW TO REACH THE MUSEUM 11

CHECK ROOMS AND GUEST SERVICES — INFORMATION DESKS
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM SHOP 11

FLOOR PLANS’ 11-13

LOCATIONS OF EXHIBITS AND SERVICES 14-15
SKETCHING AND PHOTOGRAPHING’ 16
GUIDING 16

CAFETERIAS 16

THE LIBRARY 16

PUBLICATIONS 17

THE HISTORY AND WORK OF THE MUSEUM 17
OFFICES AND LABORATORIES 19

WORKSHOPS 20

ENTERING THE MUSEUM 21

EXPLORATION AND GEOGRAPHY 22

MUSEUM HIGH SPOTS 23
MUSEUM FACTS 24

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 25

TEACHERS’ COURSES 27

NATURAL SCIENCE FOR THE LAYMAN 27

CAMP NATURE COUNSELLOR’S COURSE 27

STORY HOUR CLUB FOR PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN 27
FREE MOTION PICTURE PROGRAMS 27

INDOOR TRAILS 27

DIVISION OF CIRCULATING EXHIBITS 27
ADVISORY SERVICES 28

MAKING THE EXHIBITION HALL 29

ASTRONOMY AND THE AMERICAN MUSEUM-HAYDEN
PLANETARIUM 35

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 41
MINERALS AND GEMS 44
TIME SCALE OF EARTH HISTORY 51
FIRST FOSSIL HALL — Fishes to Early Dinosaurs 52
SECOND FOSSIL HALL — Late Dinosaurs 59
THIRD FOSSIL HALL — Age of Mammals 64
FOURTH FOSSIL HALL — Age of Mammals 67
FIFTH FOSSIL HALL—Ice Age Mammals 71
MICROPALEONTOLOGY 74

INVERTEBRATES 75

THE SYNOPTIC SERIES 75
HABITAT GROUPS 80

INSECTS AND SPIDERS 83
THE EXHIBITS 86

FISHES 93
THE EXHIBITS 93

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 97
THE EXHIBITS 99

BIRDS 107
THE WHITNEY WING~ 108
BIRDS OF THE WORLD HALL 118
HALL OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRD GROUPS 121

MAMMALS~= 125
THE HALL OF NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALS 125
AKELEY MEMORIAL HALL OF AFRICAN MAMMALS 132
VERNAY-FAUNTHORPE HALL OF SOUTH ASIATIC MAMMALS
NORTH ASIATIC MAMMALS 145
THE HALL OF OCEAN LIFE 146
SYNOPTIC HALL OF MAMMALS 149
MAMMALS OF NEW YORK STATE 1590

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR 151

ANTHROPOLOGY 155

MAN AND HIS ORIGINS 155

HALL OF PRIMATES 155

HALL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN 157
OSBORN HALL OF THE AGE OF MAN_~ 160
LIVING RACES OF MAN" 163

CONSERVATION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY 205

FELIX M. WARBURG MEMORIAL HALL 207
NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS 215

POPULAR VERSUS SCIENTIFIC WORDS 217
WORD HS! . 219

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NATURE —
THE ENVIRONMENT OF MAN

AN INTRODUCTION TO
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

The ideal museum has been dreamed of but has not yet been built.
The ideal museum presents, in logical order, the entire story of the
universe, the earth, and its inhabitants, together with their total relation
to each other. Practical limitations prevent such a museum from becom-
ing a reality but the goal is there.

The American Museum of Natural History works constantly toward
that goal. A study of the table of Contents of this General Guide will
give the Museum visitor a key to an appreciation of its offerings in both
a logical and a chronological order.

Astronomy mirrors the universe and states the theories of the earth’s
origin. The hardened rocks furnish the material of geology and the
life-forms trapped in that rock are the objects of the paleontologist’s
search. From fossils we advance to forms that are familiar today — living
creatures without backbones, insects, fishes, reptiles, birds, and mam-
mals — all leading to the study of man himself.

With the growth of man from primitive savagery to what we call
civilization, come changes in his relation to his surroundings. The first
living thing was affected by its environment and affected it in turn. Man

is no exception. He is one of a species of animals, among which he is no
more necessary to the continuance of life than are the insects, the birds
or the dinosaurs. His very existence in the future may depend on his
understanding of the world in which he finds himself.

Man is still a part of nature, although he controls much on earth.
He is still subject to great basic laws and forces that restrict and restrain
him within marked boundaries. A shift in climate from marine tem-
perate to glacial cold could wipe out the traces of man and his works
over a continent. A movement of the ocean bed could send a tidal wave
to destroy coastal towns thousands of miles away.

Closer to man’s fate than great earth changes are the difficulties he
makes for himself through lack of understanding of the consequences of
his acts. Because he is the only living organism with the powers of reason
developed to a relatively high degree, he is able to engage in thought-
processes and actions that create in him needs and desires that were not
shared by his early ancestors. In the satisfaction of these needs and
desires he cuts down whole forests for his industries. He mines the soil
and uses up resources he cannot hope to replace. He waters the desert
and reaps his harvest. He plows the plains and sows the dust bowls.

The Museum is aware of the urgency of the problems of soil, water,
forest, mineral and wild life conservation and of the conservation of man
himself. As you read through this General Guide or walk through the
Museum halls, note the theme expressed by those who represent the many
departments of science and of education. This idea is plain in their
research, in their writings and in their exhibits for the public. The
scientist-educator is concerned with the interpretation of nature rather
than with its mere presentation. The day of the thousand stuffed
animals in one long case is gone. The scientist-educator knows that man
must see nature as a whole since he must live as a whole being within
its framework.

The American Museum of Natural History is one of the most wonder-
ful places in the world. It houses the priceless objects of the earth,
displayed in dramatic settings that amaze and delight all who come to see.

But it is more, much more, than a treasure trove of the rare, the
exotic, the beautiful and the unusual. It is a great teacher who can tell
man what has gone before, what exists in the present, and what the future
holds, depending on man’s choice of direction. It would not be a great
teacher if it did not indicate the best direction for him to take.

The Museum should be all things to all men. It should meet the
needs of the housewife, the farmer, the industrialist, the teacher, the
college student, the child. Each must find, among its offerings, an answer
to his questions, an understanding of daily living and an appreciation of
his own place in a highly complex and interrelated world.

Unless museums work toward that objective, they fail in their obliga-
tion to mankind. This museum realizes that responsibility and asks you,
the visitor, to pass judgment on the fruits of its labors and to take some
of those fruits with you.

8 NATURE—THE ENVIRONMENT OF MAN

GENERAL INFORMATION

The American Museum of Natural History is located in Manhattan
Square and occupies most of the space between Central Park West,
Columbus Avenue, 77th Street, and 81st Street. “Ihe main entrances are
on Central Park West, through the Roosevelt Memorial, at three levels:
street, vehicle (driveway under the steps) and subway. There is also an
entrance on West 77th Street (foot and vehicle) in the center of the block.

The Planetarium may be entered from West 8Ist Street (foot and
vehicle) and through the Museum. Cars may be parked at the curb on
the streets surrounding the Museum Square.

ADMISSION

There is no charge for admission except to The American Museum —
Hayden Planetarium. The Museum is open to the public from 10:00
A.M. to 5:00 P.M. daily except Sundays, Thanksgiving Day, Christmas,
New Year’s Day and July 4th, when it opens from 1:00 P.M. to 5:00 P.M.

MEMBERSHIP

There are about 37 thousand members of the American Museum of
Natural History who believe that the Museum is doing a useful service
to science and to education and who are contributing to this work.
Through its explorations the Museum brings together rare and valuable
collections from all over the world. It makes these wonders of nature
easily available through its exhibition halls, its lectures, its work with
school children, and its publications. The continuance and growth of
this work is, in large measure, dependent upon the contributions of
friends.

The Trustees invite you to lend your support by becoming a member.

Membership blanks may be obtained at the information desks, in

the American Museum Shop, or by dropping a postcard to the Member-
ship Secretary, The American Museum of Natural History, Central Park
West at 79th Street, New York 24, N. Y.

Memberships may start at any time. Associate, Annual, Sustaining,
Contributing and Supporting memberships continue for a full year’s
period from the date annual dues are paid. Life and higher class mem-
berships are valid throughout the lifetime of the member.

The various classes of membership, with the dues payable by and the
yrivileges accorded to each class, are as follows:
] g

Class Dues Privileges
Associate $ 5 yearly 1 through 5
Annual 15 yearly 1 through 6 plus

choice of 7 or 8
Sustaining 25 yearly 1 through 8
Contributing 50 yearly 1] through 8
Supporting 100 yearly 1 through 8
Life 300 1 through 10
Associate Patron 1,000 1 through 10
Patron 5,000 1 through 10
Associate Benefactor 10,000 1 through 10
Associate Founder 25,000 1 through 10
Benefactor 50,000 1 through 10
Founder 100,000 1 through 10
Privileges

1. A Membership Card.
2. A year’s subscription to Natural History magazine.

3. Ten per cent discount on all books on sale in the American
Museum Shop.

4. Admission to the Members’ Room.

5. A copy of the President’s Annual Report on request (Life and
higher class members receive the Annual Report automatically).

6. “Two admissions yearly to performances of the American Museum-
Hayden Planetarium.

7. Admission to all Members’ Lectures (10 or more annually), with
guest tickets permitting members to invite one guest to each lecture.

8. Admission to all Lectures in the Adventure Series for children
of members (10 or more annually), with two guest tickets for each lecture.

9. A handsomely engraved Certificate of Membership, suitable for
framing.

10. Admission to special staff functions arranged for higher class
members.

HOW TO REACH THE MUSEUM
By Bus: Eighth Avenue or Columbus Avenue Bus to 77th Street.

79th Street Crosstown Bus to 8Ist Street and Central
Park West.

By Subway: Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line to 79th Street and Broad-
way Station (local stop). Walk two blocks east to
Columbus Avenue and 77th Street.

Sixth and Eighth Avenue Lines to 8Ist Street Station
(local stop).

Lexington Avenue Line to 77th Street Station (local
stop), then Crosstown Bus from East 79th Street directly
to 8Ist Street and Central Park West.

Groups coming by bus should direct the bus driver to let them out at
the 77th Street entrance. Busses can be parked in the area next to the
American Museum-Hayden Planetarium. When leaving, busses should
pick up their groups at the 77th Street entrance.

Visitors arriving in private cars may park in the area next to the
American Museum-Hayden Planetarium. There is room for about one
hundred and fifty cars.

CHECK ROOMS AND GUEST SERVICES — INFORMATION DESKS

‘The main check room is on the right as one enters the main entrance
on the first floor of the Roosevelt Memorial (driveway under the steps).
Coats and packages may be left here. Wheel chairs are available free of
charge. There is also a check room at the left of the 77th Street entrance.
There is no charge for checking.

Information desks are located on the main (second) floor of the
Roosevelt Memorial, in the 77th Street foyer, and facing the entrance to
the Eighth Avenue Subway.

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM SHOP

The entrance to the American Museum Shop is near the 77th Street
entrance, next to the elevators. Unusual gifts from all over the world —
authentic examples of native handicraft, pottery, masks, Indian silver
jewelry, dolls and carved objects — are on display. Specimens for the
shell and mineral collector are kept in stock. A representative list of
books, covering the many fields of the natural sciences, is also available.

FLOOR PLANS

Pictorial plans of the Museum exhibits are posted near the elevators
and at convenient points throughout the Museum to guide visitors to
the various halls. Also see the next four pages.

GENERAL INFORMATION |

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AFRICAN
AFRICAN

LOCATIONS OF EXHIBITS AND SERVICES

MAMMALS. 2nd & 3rd Floors, Halls 13.
NATIVES. 3rd Floor, Hall 8.

AMERICAN MUSEUM-HAYDEN PLANETARIUM. Ist Floor, Hall 18. (Main entrance from

AMPHIBI
AMPHIBI
ANTHRO

81st St.).
ANS (FOSSIL). 4th Floor, Hall 13.
ANS AND REPTILES (LIVING). 3rd Floor, Hall 9.
POLOGY.

African Natives: 3rd Floor, Hall 8.

Age of Man: 4th Floor, Hall 2.

Asiatic Natives: 3rd Floor, Hall 6.

Biology of Man: 3rd Floor, Hall 4.

Eskimo: Ist Floor, Hall 7a.

Indians of North America: Ist Floor, Halls 1, 4, 6 and 8.
Indians of Mexico & Cent. America: 2nd Floor, Hall 4.
Indians of South America: 2nd Floor, Hall 8.

New Zealand Natives: 4th Floor, Hall 8.

Philippine Natives: 4th Floor, Hall 8.

South Sea Natives: 4th Floor, Hall 6.

Southeast Asia Natives: 4th Floor, Hall 8.

Stone Age Culture: 2nd Floor, Hall 6.

Tibetan Exhibit: 3rd Floor, Hall 6.

ARCHAEOLOGY. 2nd Floor, Halls 4, 6 and 8.

ASIATIC
ASIATIC

MAMMALS. 2nd Floor, Halls 5 and 9.
NATIVES. 3rd Floor, Hall 6.

AUDITORIUM. lst Floor, Hall 7.
BIRDS (FOSSIL). Ist Floor, Hall 19.
BIRDS (LIVING).

Biology of Birds: Ist Floor, Hall 19.

Birds of North America: 3rd Floor, Hall 1.
Birds of the World: 2nd Floor, Hall 2.

Local Birds: 1st Floor, Hall 12.

Pacific Bird Life: 2nd Floor, Hall 19.

BUTTERFLIES. 3rd Floor, Halls 3 and 5.
CAFETERIA. Basement, Hall 12. For teachers and children, Basement, Hall

Snack Bar.

CONSERVATION. Ist Floor, Halls 3 and 5.

CORNER

GALLERY. 2nd Floor, Hall 5.

DINOSAURS. 4th Floor, Halls 9, 12 and 13.
DRUMMOND COLLECTION OF JADE. 4th Floor, Hall 6.

DUPLEX

HALL. 2nd Floor, Hall 11.

ECOLOGY. Ist Floor, Hall 3 and 5.

EDUCATI

ON HALL. Ist Floor, Hall 11.

ELEVATORS. Halls 2 and 12.

ESKIMO.
FISHES (

Ist Floor, Hall 7a.
FOSSIL). 4th Floor, Halls 5 and 13a.

FISHES (LIVING). Ist Floor, Hall 9.
FORESTS. Ist Floor, Hall 5.

GEMS A

ND MINERALS. 4th Floor, Hall 4.

GEOLOGY OF DUTCHESS COUNTY. Ist Floor, Hall 3.

HAYDEN PLANETARIUM. 1st Floor, Hall 18. (Main entrance from 81st St.).
INDIANS OF MEXICO & CENTRAL AMERICA. 2nd Floor, Hall 4.

INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA. Ist Floor, Halls 1, 4, 6 and 8.

INDIANS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 2nd Floor, Hall 8.

INFORMATION DESKS. Basement, Hall 12; Ist Floor, Hall 2;

2nd Floor, Hall 12; and by all elevators, Halls 2 and 12.

INVERTEBRATES (FOSSIL). In preparation.

11.

See also

INVERTEBRATES (LIVING). Ist Floor, Hall 10.

INSECTS AND SPIDERS. 3rd Floor, Halls 3 and 5; Ist Floor, Hall 12.
JADE, DRUMMOND COLLECTION OF. 4th Floor, Hall 6.
LANDSCAPE HALL. Ist Floor, Hall 3.

LECTURE AND MEETING ROOMS.

Auditorium: Ist Floor, Hall 7

Duplex Hall: 2nd Floor, Hall 11.

Portrait Room: 2nd Floor, Hall 12.

Room 129: Ist Floor, Hall 12.

Room 319: 3rd Floor, Hall 12.

Room 419: 4th Floor, Hall 12.

Room 426: 4th Floor, Hall 12.

Roosevelt Lecture Room: Sth Floor, Hall 12.
Sportsmen's Library: 2nd Floor, Hall 12.

LIBRARY. 5th Floor, Hall 2.
MAMMALS (FOSSIL). 4th Floor, Halls 2, 3 and 5.
MAMMALS (LIVING).

African: 2nd and 3rd Floors, Hall 13.
Asiatic: 2nd Floor, Halls 5 and 9.
Biology of Mammals: 3rd Floor, Hall 3.
Hall of Ocean Life: Ist Floor, Hall 10.
New York State: Ist Floor, Hall 12.
North American: Ist Floor, Hall 13.
Primates: 3rd Floor, Hall 2.

MAN.
Age of: 4th Floor, Hall 2.
Biology of: 3rd Floor, Hall 4.
Origin of: 4th Floor, Hall 2; 3rd Floor, Hall 4.

MEXICAN & CENTRAL AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY. 2nd Floor, Hall 4,
MINERALS AND GEMS. 4th Floor, Hall 4.

MONTANA, MEN OF THE. 2nd Floor, Hall 3.

MUSEUM SHOP. Ist Floor, Hall 2b.

NEW ZEALAND NATIVES. 4th Floor, Hall 8.

NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALS. lst Floor, Hall 13.

OCEAN LIFE, HALL OF. Ist Floor, Hall 10.

PACIFIC BIRD LIFE. 2nd Floor, Hall 19.

PHILIPPINE NATIVES. 4th Floor, Hall 8.

PLANETARIUM. Ist Floor, Hall 18. (Main entrance from 81st St.).
PLANT COMMUNITIES. Ist Floor, Halls 3 and 5.

POLAR EXPLORATION. _ Ist Floor, Hall 2.

PRIMATES. 3rd Floor, Hall 2.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 3rd Floor, Hall 11. (And Basement).
REPTILES (FOSSIL). 4th Floor, Halls 5, 9, 12 and 13.

REPTILES (LIVING). 3rd Floor, Hall 9; Ist Floor, Hall 12.
SCHOOL SERVICE. 3rd and 4th Floors, Hall 11. (And Basement).
SHOP. Ist Floor, Hall 2b.

SNACK BAR. 2nd Floor, Hall 2.

SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS & ARCHAEOLOGY. 2nd Floor, Hall 8.
SOUTH SEA NATIVES. 4th Floor, Hall 6.

SOUTHEAST ASIA NATIVES. 4th Floor, Hall 8.

SPIDERS. 3rd Floor, Hall 5.

SUBWAY. Basement, Hall 12.

THEODORE ROOSEVELT MEMORABILIA. 2nd Floor, Hall 12.
THEODORE ROOSEVELT MEMORIAL. Ist to 5th Floors, Hall 12.
TIBETAN EXHIBIT. 3rd Floor, Hall 6.

WHALE MODEL (LIFE SIZE). 3rd Floor, Hall 3.

GENERAL INFORMATION

SKETCHING AND PHOTOGRAPHING

Chairs for artists and students who wish to draw from exhibits may
de had by asking the nearest attendant. Amateur photographers may get
permission from any information desk to take pictures in the Museum
halls. Professional photographers may get permission from the Division
of Photography. ‘The use of a tripod and careful exposure with a light
meter is recommended for most Museum photography.

GUIDING

Free Guiding Service: In addition to the regularly scheduled educa-
tional programs of the Department of Public Instruction, free guiding
is given to Members of the Museum and their friends, upon presentation
of Members’ tickets. An appointment should be made at least two
weeks in advance, stating the day and hour desired, the number to be
guided and any special exhibits to be seen.

Paid Guiding Service: ‘This is available for non-members of the
Museum according to the following schedule:

1-4 persons minimum charge $2 per hour

4-9 persons $2 per hour plus 50¢ each additional
person up to and including 9 persons

10-30 persons $5 per hour

30-60 persons $10 per hour (services of 2 Museum
instructors)

60-90 persons $15 per hour (services of 3 Museum
instructors)

Guiding is available on weekdays after 2 P.M. There is no guiding
on Saturdays, Sundays and holidays. For appointments call TRafalgar
3-1300, Extension 255.

CAFETERIAS

The Main Cafeteria is convenient to the subway entrance in the
Roosevelt Memorial. It is open from 11:30 A.M. to 4:30 P.M. daily
and from 1:00 P.M. to 4:30 P.M. on Sundays. It is closed on the following
holidays: Christmas Day, New Year's Day and Thanksgiving Day.

On Saturdays, Sundays and holidays, except those mentioned above,
the Auxiliary Cafeteria on the second floor, above the 77th Street
Entrance, is open as a snack bar from 1:30 P.M. to 4:30 P.M.

THE LIBRARY

The Library is on the fifth floor of the Museum. It is devoted to
works on natural science, exploration and travel and contains some
145,000 volumes which comprise not only the important periodicals of
our own and foreign countries but also all representative and standard
works on zoology, physical anthropology, ethnology, pre-history, archae-

ology, geology, and paleontology. ‘The collection on vertebrate paleon-
tology forms the Osborn Library of Vertebrate Paleontology, founded
by President Henry Fairfield Osborn.

- The Reading Room of the Library is open to the public from 10:00
A.M. until 4:00 P.M., except on Sundays and holidays. The Library is
also closed on Saturdays from June to September. ‘Those interested in
consulting books and periodicals are welcome to do so during the avail-
able hours.

PUBLICATIONS

The publications of the American Museum fall into two groups:
technical and popular.

The technical publications, comprising the Bulletin, Anthropological
Papers, Memoirs and American Museum Novitates, contain information
gathered by the various expeditions or derived from the study of material
collected. The Bulletin contains the larger scientific papers, covering
records of exploration and collections of the Museum. The Anthro-
pological Papers are devoted to researches in the study of man, supervised
by the Museum’s Department of Anthropology. ‘The Memoirs, quarto
in size, contain monographs, many of which require large illustrations.
The Novitates include the shorter scientific contributions, descriptions
of species, etc., which demand immediate publication. The scientific
publications are distributed to libraries of scientific institutions and
societies throughout the world, largely on an exchange basis. Inquiries
may be directed to Editor — Scientific Publications.

The popular publications include Natural History magazine, Junior
Natural History (a children’s magazine), and Man and Nature Publica-
tions. The purpose of all these publications is to give the public accurate
and interesting information in all fields of natural science.

Man and Nature Publications deal with exhibits of particular interest
and with the many natural science fields, edited for reading by the
layman. More than 140 of these booklets, guides and leaflets have been
issued and new ones are constantly in preparation. The Handbooks,
fifteen of which have been issued, deal with themes related to the
collections and are frequently used as textbooks.

A catalogue of the popular publications of The American Museum of
Natural History will be sent free on request. (Address: Man and Nature
Publications, The American Museum of Natural History, Central Park
West at 79th Street, New York 24, N. Y.)

An Annual Report is issued yearly.

THE HISTORY AND WORK OF THE MUSEUM

‘The American Museum of Natural History was founded and incor-
_ porated in 1869 for the purpose of establishing a Museum and Library
) of Natural History; of encouraging and developing the study of Natural
| Science; of advancing the general knowledge of kindred subjects and
_ of furnishing popular instruction. For eight years its home was in the
| Arsenal in Central Park.

GENERAL INFORMATION 17

———

The cornerstone of the present building in Manhattan Square was
laid in 1874 by President Ulysses S. Grant. In 1877, the first section
(South Central Wing) was completed and on December 22nd, 1877,
it was formally opened by President Rutherford B. Hayes.

The educational work with the schools was begun in 1880 by Pro-
fessor Albert Bickmore.

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THE MUSEUM’S FIRST UNIT, COMPLETED IN 1877.

The Museum building is one of the largest municipal structures in
the City of New York. The South Facade is 710 feet in length and the
present East Facade, on Central Park West, is 600 feet. When completed,
the building is designed to occupy all of Manhattan Square.

The building is largely erected and maintained by the City, through
the Department of Parks. “The Roosevelt Memorial section was the gift
to the City by the State of New York as its monument to Theodore
Roosevelt. “The Whitney Wing was built jointly by the late Harry Payne
Whitney and the City of New York. The American Museum-Hayden
Planetarium was financed by funds loaned by the Reconstruction Finance
Corporation of the Federal government. The annual City appropriation,
known as the Maintenance Fund, is devoted to the care and upkeep of the
building and the safeguarding of the collections.

The Museum is under the control of a self-perpetuating Board of
Trustees, which gives its services.

The scientific and educational work is carried on by twelve depart-
ments, each headed by a Chairman or Curator, under the leadership
of the Director.

The funds through which specimens are purchased, exhibits made,
explorations carried on and_ scientific investigations conducted are
contributed by the ‘Trustees, members and other friends. ‘The scientific
and popular publications of the Museum and the enlargement of the
Library are also made possible through these contributions.

For the benefit of the public, the halls of the Museum are given
over to the large series of exhibits which are partially described in this
guide book. ‘These are supplemented by lectures and publications of a
popular nature. Special motion picture showings are given on Wednes-
day and Saturday afternoons except from June through September. An
important course of evening lectures is given every Spring and Fall for
the members, also Saturday morning courses of special lectures for
children of members. All lectures are illustrated by motion pictures or
Kodachrome slides, many of which have been taken on Museum expedi-
tions. “Two auditoriums within the Museum are in use for public
showings — the Main Auditorium on the first floor and the Roosevelt
Lecture Room on the fifth floor of the Roosevelt Memorial.

OFFICES AND LABORATORIES

The fifth floor of the Museum houses administrative offices, work
rooms and the laboratories of most of the Scientific Departments. On
this floor are the work rooms of the Department of Vertebrate Paleon-
tology, where the skeletons of fossil animals are prepared and mounted
and the beautiful models of invertebrates are made. These, like the
other laboratories, are, of necessity, not open to the public.

On the sixth floor of the African section are the well-equipped
laboratories devoted to experimental biological research and to physi-
ology and life histories based on the study of living animals.

Most of the scientific study collections are on the fifth floor. These
are for the benefit of investigators and to preserve the evidences and
records of our vanishing animal life and the lives and customs of primitive
peoples.

The vast majority of the Museum’s natural science specimens is in
study collections to protect them from damage and for ready use by
scientific investigators. A careful selection is made of objects of greatest
educational value and these form the basis of the Museum displays in its
exhibition halls.

The Lerner Marine Laboratory

The Lerner Marine Laboratory was established in 1947 by Mr.
Michael Lerner to further field studies in marine biology through the

GENERAL INFORMATION 19

Department of Fishes and Aquatic Biology. Located on the island of
Bimini, almost sixty miles due east of Miami, Florida, the laboratory
occupies about two and one-third acres on which are the laboratory
building, a residence for workers, a storehouse and a power house.

The laboratory building contains four laboratories, a study, two
combined aquarium and lab rooms, an animal room, a refrigerator room,
a constant temperature room and a photographic dark room. Glass
bottomed boats, diving equipment, seines and nets and other facilities
are available for researchers. A limited number of applications are
accepted yearly by the Museum for workers who wish to use the labora-
tory facilities.

Genetics Laboratory

Another laboratory within the Museum is engaging in experiments
on the hereditary patterns of tropical fish, the results of which are being
used to determine the influence of heredity in cancer.

Fish-raising enthusiasts, familiar with the problems of cross-breeding
Mexican platyfish and common swordtails, know that the spotted hybrids
often develop tumors. Experiments have been going on for over entry
five years to find the source of these tumors.

When two pure strains of the platy were bred — one with black
pigmented spots and the other unspotted — the first-generation platyfish
would necessarily be spotted. The spotted pattern is a dominant trait
and the unspotted pattern recessive. The black spots are inherited in
accordance with Mendel’s law of heredity. A cross-bred hybrid from
an unspotted platy of the second generation and an unspotted swordtail
is unspotted and normal.

When a spotted platy is crossed with an unspotted swordtail, the
hybrids have tumors identified as black cancer or melanoma. The find-
ings show that the swordtails carry dominant modifying genes which
interact with the blackspot-carrying genes of the platy, so that the black
cells of the hybrid develop cancer.

‘The next experiments were made with one species, the platy, and
proved that black cancer in fish is hereditary. The facts derived from
such experiments are being used to determine a possible basis for control
of those types of cancer that are inherited in man.

The laboratory for this research is housed in the American Museum
and is directed by the geneticist of the New York Zoological Society and
supported by a grant from the National Cancer Institute of the U. S.
Public Health Service.

WORKSHOPS

An important part of the Museum not seen by the public are the
workshops in the basement of the building. Provided with machinery
of the latest pattern, workmen make the various types of cases used,
build and repair the Museum’s furniture and make required installa-
tions for the exhibition halls.

20 GENERAL INFORMATION

ENTERING THE MUSEUM

Fifty-eight halls of the Museum are now open to public exhibition.
The visitor begins his trip through this immense treasure house ol
natural science from one of three directions: through the Roosevelt
Memorial (page 3), through the American Museum-Hayden Planctarium
(page 3), or through the South, or 77th Street Entrance.

The Theodore Roosevelt Memorial

The Theodore Roosevelt Memorial forms the main entrance to the
Museum on Central Park West. Its graceful architecture follows a stately
Romanesque design.

The facade of the Memorial is set off by four Ionic columns 54 feet
high, representing Boone, Audubon, Clark and Lewis, pioneers in the
early exploration of our country. A massive equestrian bronze of ‘Theo-
dore Roosevelt by J. E. Fraiser, stands before the entrance arch. On
either side of him stand an American Indian and an African native.

Passing through the central archway, the visitor stands in the great
Memorial Hall. Above the marble mosaic floor, walls of cream-colored
marble and limestone rise to an elaborate Corinthian cornice over-arched
by an octagonal coffered barrel-vault 100 feet above the floor. “he

THE THEODORE ROOSEVELT MEMORIAL HALL.

central part of each wall is recessed and divided into three parts by two
Roman Corinthian columns 48 feet high supporting the entablature.
Three of these recesses are adorned with great mural paintings symbolic
of the varied career of ‘Theodore Roosevelt. On the wall, quotations
from his writings are given in bronze letters.

‘The ‘Theodore Roosevelt Memorial was erected by the people of the
State of New York in memory of the man whose name it bears.

South Entrance Archway

Under the arch on 77th Street, before entering the Museum doorway,
may be seen the Bench Mark established by the United States Geological
Survey in 1911, on which are inscribed the latitude and longitude,
40°46'47.17” N., 73°58’41” W. and height above sea level, 86 feet.

On the right is a GLACIAL POT HOLE from Russell, St. Lawrence
County, N. Y., formed by an eddy in a stream beneath the melting ice
of the glacier that once covered northern New York State. Pebbles,
whirling around the eddy, cut and ground this hole which is two feet
across and four feet deep.

GLACIAL GROOVES. On the left is a large slab of fossil-bearing
limestone from Kelly Island in Lake Erie, near Sandusky, whose surface
has been smoothed, grooved, and scratched by the stones and sand in
the bottom of the vast moving ice sheet that covered northeastern North
America during the Glacial Epoch.

On either side of the archway are the two largest beryl crystals ever
quarried. They were cut in Albany, Maine. These six-sided crystals
show the typical aquamarine color in their clearest portions.

Memorial Hall

Memorial Hall is entered through the lobby from the South En-
trance. In this hall are placed temporary exhibits of current interest.
Many of these exhibits represent research in various departments of the
Museum and recent results of exploration by Museum expeditions.

EXPLORATION AND GEOGRAPHY

Exhibits showing equipment of polar expeditions made in coopera-
tion with the Museum are located in the corridor leading to the elevators.

Here are sledges with which PEARY (1909) and AMUNDSEN (1911)
reached the North and South Poles respectively; also souvenirs of the
AMUNDSEN-ELLSWORTH expeditions of 1925 and 1926. Maps of the
Polar Regions show the routes of various explorers and the polar air
flights.

22 GENERAL INFORMATION

MUSEUM HIGH SPOTS

RARE AND EXTINCT BIRDS — including reconstruction of the Dodo
and a skeleton of the Mammoth Moa—in the Leonard C. Sanford
Hall of the Biology of Birds, Ist floor.

MOA — reconstruction of this giant extinct bird, New Zealand Moa
group — Whitney Memorial Hall of South Pacific Birds, 2nd floor.

ALASKA BROWN BEAR — largest bear in the world — Hall of North
American Mammals, Ist floor.

“AN OCTOBER AFTERNOON NEAR STISSING MOUNTAIN” —
strikingly realistic habitat group of the Pine Plains area of Dutchess
County, N. Y. — Felix M. Warburg Memorial Hall, Ist floor.

_ METEORITES — one of the world’s largest meteorites: the Ahnighito —

| 3614 tons— brought from Greenland in 1897 by Admiral Peary —
American Museum-Hayden Planetarium, Ist floor.

_DROP OF WATER — magnified a million times — depicted in a blown-
| glass model — Hall of Living Invertebrates — Gallery of the Hall of
: Ocean Life, Ist floor.

| MEN OF THE MONTANA ~ the story of life in a Peruvian Rain Forest
: — authentic, recorded sound effects — Special Exhibition Hall, 2nd floor.

LITTLE DIOMEDE AND BIG DIOMEDE -— islands in Bering Strait —
International Boundary Line passes between them. Big Diomede is
Russian, Littke Diomede American — South Sea Birds, 2nd floor.

AFRICAN ELEPHANT HERD — Akeley African Hall, 2nd floor.

STONE HEAD OF OLMEC STYLE — Mexican and Central American
Hall, 2nd floor.

THE “COPPER MAN” MUMMY AND SHRUNKEN HEADS — South
American Indian Hall, 2nd floor.

MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES — from all parts of the world — Insect
Hall, 3rd floor.

DRAGON LIZARDS OF KOMODO — the world’s largest living lizards
— Reptile Hall, 3rd floor.

IVORY COLLECTION — African Ethnology Hall, 3rd floor.

TYRANNOSAURUS REX — king of dinosaurs — Cretaceous Dinosaur
Hall, 4th floor.

BRONTOSAURUS — great plant-eating dinosaur — dinosaur foot-
prints — Brontosaur Hall, 4th floor.

DINOSAUR EGGS — 60 MILLION YEARS OLD — from the Gobi
Desert — Cretaceous Dinosaur Hall, 4th floor.

TOPAZ CRYSTAL — 600 POUNDS — largest in the world — Morgan
Hall of Minerals and Gems, 4th floor.

WILD DOG GROUP —a hunting pack of African wild dogs looking
across the plains — Akeley African Hall gallery, 3rd floor.

MUSEUM FACTS

The gross area of the American Museum is approximately 40 acres; of
this, 23 acres are open to the public.

1,022,000 square feet of floor must be cleaned. It takes 125 men to do
the job.

Electric mopping machines soap the floor, scrub it, rinse it and dry it.
One mopping machine does the work of eight men.
There are 58 halls open to the public, with a total of 2,302 exhibit cases.

The average exhibit case contains 68 square feet of glass. If all the glass
in all the cases were spread out flat, it would cover an area of 31% acres.
It takes two men to change the 31,000 light bulbs in use in the Museum.
The Museum contains 348 rooms, including offices, shops, meeting places,

work rooms and laboratories.

24 MUSEUM HIGH SPOTS

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

The week-day visitor to the American Museum will see eager groups
of children standing with an instructor before various exhibits. Some
of these groups may be classes with their own teachers but most of them
will be part of the Department of Public Instruction’s “World We Live
In” program, designed for children of elementary school grades. Subjects
or “themes” have been cooperatively planned with the school authorities.

The program, scheduled for each school day from 10:00 A.M. to
2:00 P.M., gives the children a complete day in the Museum, with sub-
jects and teaching aimed at helping them to a more meaningful under-
standing of the world in which they live.

This is done with motion pictures, lessons in the halls, question and
answer periods, physical demonstrations of principles or facts to be
stressed and the actual handling of objects of natural science interest.
If a group is studying Pan-America, for example, the children watch
movies about Mexico, listen to Mexican music and even wear Mexican
costumes and take part in dancing.

Special attention is given to classes or groups of children with visual
and other physical handicaps. For full information, write or phone the
Registrar, Department of Public Instruction, The American Museum |
of Natural History, New York 24, N. Y., Telephone, TRafalgar 3-1300,

Extension 255.

Fad

LITTLE BOY WITH SWORDFISH.

SCHOOL CLASSES VISITING THE MUSEUM. Cooperating with the school authorities,

the Museum offers a plenned, full-day teaching program for school classes.
scene below, in the Museum’s auditorium, shows a part of this program.

The

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TEACHERS’ COURSES

Each semester as many as five different courses for teachers-in-service
are offered by the Department. These courses, designed to improve the
educational use of Museum resources by City teachers, are accredited by
the College of the City of New York and Hunter College and are
approved In-Service courses of the Superintendent of Schools. For full
information, write the Registrar.

NATURAL SCIENCE FOR THE LAYMAN
This course is given each semester and is a series of field trips to
nearby localities. It gives adults a chance to become acquainted with
plant and animal life and the important Man-Nature relationships.
Service charge for the course is $1.00 per trip for non-Members and $.75
for Museum Members. For complete information, write or phone Miss
Farida A. Wiley, Department of Public Instruction.

CAMP NATURE COUNSELLOR’S COURSE
This course is given each spring to increase the efficiency of group
nature work in summer camps. Service charge is $10.00. Write or phone
the Registrar.

STORY HOUR CLUB FOR PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN

The Story Hour Club, offered several times each year, introduces
pre-school children from 314 to 5 years of age to natural science and
museums. Visits to exhibition halls are held in conjunction with the
telling of stories concerned with natural science. The service charge is
$5.00 per series of ten story-hour sessions. For further information write
or phone Miss Marguerite Ross, Department of Public Instruction.

FREE MOTION PICTURE PROGRAMS

Museum visitors are invited to attend free motion picture programs
on natural science subjects. The Wednesday series runs throughout
the year and begins at 3:30 P.M. The Saturday series is from October
to May and begins at 2:00 P.M.

INDOOR TRAILS

Young visitors may get more than twelve different Indoor Trails at
information desks. These question-and-answer games, to be played in
the halls, are well-illustrated and contain much accurate scientific in-
formation. The Trails, pencil included, are for sale at a modest price.
Answers may be checked at the information desks.

DIVISION OF CIRCULATING EXHIBITS

This collection of educational exhibits and specimens in the field
of natural science is carried to schools for classroom use. Materials are

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 27

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selected to meet subject requirements in science, social studies and re-
lated subjects. A fleet of Museum trucks services the schools on a regular
schedule. For full information, write or phone the Supervisor of Cir-
culating Exhibits.

ADVISORY SERVICES

On request, the Department provides advisory services on the educa-
tional use of museum resources. A model Nature Room is kept for the
benefit of interested persons who wish to start one of their own in the
classroom or in a small museum. ‘This room is not open to the general
public but may be seen, on advance request, on schoolday afternoons,
after 2:00 P.M.

From a one-man lecture service, begun in 1884 by Albert S. Bickmore,
the Department has expanded until over 10,000,000 persons are reached
each year by its programs and services.

28 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

MAKING THE EXHIBITION HALL

The construction of the beautiful exhibits in The American Museum
of Natural History is, in itself, as interesting as the viewing of them by
the more than two million persons who visit the Museum annually. At
the request of many visitors, we have included in the General Guide just
what goes on before an exhibition hall is open to the public.
We will take the Felix M. Warburg Memorial Hall as an example.
This hall depicts an area from early ages to the present, with all the
interrelationships of environment, plant, animal and human life. Its
-method of presentation is a radical departure from the hitherto accepted ;
-method of museum exhibition.
First, the basic idea of the Hall is outlined in synopsis form. It is
the complete story which the Hall will convey that the scientists think
ought to be included in it, together with the emphasis they want made
in the displays.
A committee of the Director, Board members, scientists and educa-
tional advisers studies the synopsis and passes on it. A lively discussion
determines what can be added to make the exhibition as valuable as
possible. he committee also decides on the location of the new Hall.
_ After the idea and the location are approved, the synopsis is analyzed
from a display angle and the Assistant Director for Program Administra-
tion, together with his designers, draws up plans for the exhibits which
_are then submitted to the Director and his committee for approval. When
the necessary funds are found, the work begins. |
| Metal workers, masons, electricians, carpenters and painters build
_ the structures that will house the habitat groups, dioramas, models and

other kinds of display and the Department of Exhibition is working on
the exhibits themselves.

As you enter the Warburg Memorial Hall from the 77th Street Foyer,
you will note a large, eye- catching exhibit entitled “An October After-
noon Near Stissing Mountain.” It shows the brilliant autumn coloring
typical of this region, together with some animals found there. As an
example of the building of the larger group, let us see how it was made.

Using sketches and ai. has made at the scene, the artist roughs
out his picture on the curved background. Because there are no corners,
the visitor is given a feeling of depth, perspective and reality that 1s
not possible with a flat painted surface. After the sketch is rendered in
charcoal, the artist fixes it with a shellac spray. Then, with fine oil
pigments, he paints in the background of the group. He may employ as
many as thirteen shades of blue in painting a sky from the horizon to
the zenith.

One of the artist’s difficult jobs is to make it appear as though the
foreground objects continue into the vertical background. You will
notice that he places clumps of red-leaved sumac against the background,
then paints more sumac as though it grew beyond the real plants. When
his careful color-matching and artistry are finished, the visitor has trouble
telling where the foreground ends and the painted background begins.

If you look at the foreground, you will see that it is not flat, but
rolling, as is the natural confor mation of the land at this particular site
near Stissing Mountain. This foreground, or terrain, is made by first
determining the character of the actual ground, then cutting wooden
forms or contours to match it. These forms are then covered with heavy
wire netting, then burlap and plaster-of-paris, strong enough to hold up
the weight of the men who are working on the group. This foreground
is the foundation for the earth, plant and animal life in the exhibit.

ARTIST AT WORK
ON BACKGROUND.
Preliminary charcoal
drawing.

While construction work and background painting are going on, the
Department of Exhibition has been making accessories, exhibits, models
and special effects for the Hall. Accessories include artificial leaves and
flowers, trees, bushes, manufactured rocks, fruits, berries, preserved
plants and mosses. At the same time, preparators are tanning skins,
getting them ready to be mounted.

Some plants can be used as they grow in nature. Members of the pine
family, mosses, and grasses are soaked in a solution of formaldehyde and
glycerine. The glycerine prevents the plant from drying out and keeps it
pliable. The formaldehyde preserves the material, but because it also
tends to fade natural colors, the technicians must bring back the original
hue by spraying with an air brush and lacquer of the right shade.

Clumps of grass are mounted on plaster-of-paris bases and sprayed
with lacquer if the natural color is desired. In the group you may see
some of this grass, each bunch standing close to the next, with earth
patted down between the bases.

Most leaves are made by tracing the leaf pattern on a thick pad of
crepe paper. The pattern is cut out with a fine-toothed band saw. Hun-
dreds of leaves are turned out at one time by this method. An order
may call for as many as ten thousand leaves. Each leaf must be handled
separately after being cut out, as veins must be drawn or embossed,
insect holes simulated and color applied to match the original. Even the
midribs, of iron wire, are carefully tapered by dipping bundles of wire
into nitric acid. The dripping-down of the acid thins the wires toward
their ends.

Flowers may be molded from thin sheets of cellulose acetate, a non-
inflammable plastic material. The acetate sheets are “limped” in a
solution of acetone, placed in the mold where they take form, are
removed, trimmed and delicately painted by hand. Even the tiniest
pistils and stamens are painstakingly made so that the flowers will be
as botanically accurate as possible.

There are no artificial rocks in “An October Afternoon Near Stissing
Mountain.” Artificial rocks are used when the real ones would be too
heavy. Samples of real rocks and photographs of them help the technician
to copy nature. He makes his rocks from wire netting, burlap, plaster-
of-paris, papier mache and coloring materials. Should he be required
to produce a “wet” rock, he runs shellac or varnish down the side and
lets it dry.

In the “October Afternoon” group, you can see a red fox looking at
a bluejay sitting in a canoe birch. The fox and the bird, as well as other
small animals shown in the Hall, are mounted by putting their skins
on artificial bodies made of wrapped excelsior.

There are no animals in the Warburg Memorial Hall that are
mounted on hollow manikins. But this is such an interesting process that
we have included it in our description. First, it must be understood
that the Museum animals are not stuffed. The larger ones are mounted

MAKING THE EXHIBITION HALL 31

on manikins, similar to those human forms found in the show windows
of New York shops.

The manikin is begun by putting the animal’s bones together on a
wood and wire framework in the natural position desired, then patting
sculptor’s clay over the whole assembly. A statue is modelled by the
sculptor, who is an expert animal anatomist. Making the statue is a
long task and when the artist goes home at night or over the weekend,
he wraps his work in woolen blankets, soaked with water. This keeps
the clay fresh and impressionable. ‘The statue is made as though the
animal had just lost its skin — that is, the muscles, tendons, prominent
veins and ribs are shaped in the clay so that they will show under the
tanned skin when it is fitted to the manikin.

When the statue is finished and the skin has been tried on for size,
the sculptor makes a plaster cast of it. When the cast is taken off, it is
lined with overlapping strips of burlap. This rough fabric is coated with
liquid plaster-of-paris, about as heavy as cream. When the plaster
hardens in the burlap lining, the “shell” is removed, braced, put together,

TANNING A
MAMMAL SKIN.

FITTING
TANNED SKIN
OVER MALE
MULE DEER
MANIKIN.

coated with a preservative and is now a manikin, waiting for the animal’s
skin.

Fitting the skin to the manikin is a delicate process. An adhesive is
placed on the under side of the skin as it goes on the manikin. The skin
is sewed up with needle and thread. The stitches do not show because
they are on the under side.

To make sure that all the muscles, veins, ribs and hollows are promi-
nent, the technician drives hundreds of small nails or pins through the
skin into the manikin, to keep the skin tight around key points. When
the adhesive is “set” in two or three days, the nails or pins are taken out.
The animal now seems to have rippling muscles, his ribs show as they
should, and even veins in his muzzle are as plain as they would be in a
living specimen.

Good examples of such large mounts may be found in the Giant
Eland Group or the Giant Sable Group in the Akeley African Hall on
the second floor.

Now our background is painted, the terrain is covered with plants,
the animals have been placed and the “October Afternoon Near Stissing
Mountain” is complete. But the Department of Exhibition has been
busy making many more displays for the Hall, other than the accessories
for “An October Afternoon.”

It has made farm buildings, farm machinery, small dioramas and
cut-outs, mirrorscopes through which the visitor sees a remarkably
realistic presentation of landscapes in many aspects, soil profiles, scientific
models of root systems, apple blossoms, the hind leg of a bee with its
pollen basket, the life history of the codling moth that attacks apples,
studies of photosynthesis and respiration for the “Cycle of Nutrition

MAKING THE EXHIBITION HALL 33

and Decay” and many other displays and models requiring scientific
accuracy and infinite attention to detail and exact coloration.

The groups, displays and models have been checked by the Scientific
Departments concerned. Geology advised how the mountains looked
during various time periods, as shown in the displays “Geological History
and Structure.” ‘he Department of Conservation advised on “The Water
Cycle,” “Soils and Soil Conservation,” and “Life in the Soil.”

Paleontology checked the accuracy of dioramas and objects that
show the prehistoric plants and animals that lived in this place many
thousands of years ago.

The Bird and Mammal Departments saw to it that the bluejay, the
fox, the chipmunks, muskrat and other animals in the Hall were care-
fully installed in authentic positions and relationships.

The Department of Insects and Spiders supervised the placement of
dragonflies, butterflies and beetles, to be found in “An October After-
noon,” “From Field to Lake,” and “Cycle of Nutrition and Decay.”

The Department of Amphibians and Reptiles and the Department
of Fishes worked with the technicians and the preparators to insure the
accuracy Of the use of turtles, trout, catfish, perch and pickerel shown
in “From Field to Lake.”

The Department of Anthropology made its recommendations as to
the best way to show man’s part in this environmental exhibition. It
checked on house and farm styles, tools, machinery, and agricultural
methods of the various times depicted. All Scientific Departments con-
cerned in the Hall helped in the writing of labels and other informative
material.

At last the Felix M. Warburg Memorial Hall is completed. Into it
has gone much of the Museum’s time, money, talent and effort. The
Director, Board members, advisory committees, the Scientific Staff, archi-
tects, exhibition personnel, artists, preparators, tanners, technicians,
metal workers, masons, carpenters, painters, bookkeepers, public relations
people, photographers, attendants — all have given of the best that is in
them to make an exhibition hall of lasting beauty, scientific accuracy
and educational importance.

For a description of these exhibits see the chapter entitled ECOLOGY
AND CONSERVATION.

34 MAKING THE EXHIBITION HALL

ASTRONOMY AND THE +
AMERICAN MUSEUM-
HAYDEN PLANETARIUM

The American Museum-Hayden Planetarium, adjoining the Roose-
velt Memorial, with its main entrance on 8Ist Street and Central Park
West, constitutes the Museum’s Department of Astronomy. Since the
complete story of natural science begins with the story of the universe,
it is fitting that the Planetarium’s description begin the General Guide.

The establishment of the Planetarium in 1935 marked the culmina-
tion of a ten-year effort to secure for The American Museum of Natural
History a planetarium projector. This complicated piece of precision
equipment was developed for visual education and entertainment by
the firm of Carl Zeiss at Jena, Germany, to present the fascinating and
ever-changing drama of the skies.

In 1933 the Trustees of the American Museum formed a separate
corporation under the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to construct
and equip a planetarium. Mr. Charles Hayden, after whom the building
is named, donated both the projection instrument and the Copernican
planetarium on the first floor.

The high spot of the Planetarium is the great Zeiss projector, installed
in a hemispherical dome 75 feet in diameter. ‘The main body of the
instrument is 12 feet long, with a large globe at either end containing
projectors that show the fixed stars of the northern and southern sky
on the inner surface of the dome. Individual projectors for the sun,
moon and five naked-eye planets are mounted in the latticed cylinder
that supports these globes.

Each of the large star globes contains sixteen separate lens systems
in which are incorporated copper foil plates with holes of various sizes

for stars of different magnitudes, so that a central light source causes
the star images to appear on the dome. ‘These fit together in such a way
as to reproduce the constellations exactly as seen in the real sky under
ideal weather conditions. ‘hese projectors reveal images of all the fixed
stars visible to the unaided eye from any part of the earth. Each of the
thirty-two star field projectors is also provided with a device which auto-
matically eclipses the star images when they are below the horizon.

he projector also contains special instruments for projecting the
Milky Way, comets, important variable stars and the various reference
circles used by the astronomer in describing the positions and motions of
the celestial bodies.

The main projector turns independently on any one of three axes.
First, it may turn on an axis parallel with the polar axis of the earth.
[his simulates the apparent westward motion of the heavenly bodies
due to the earth’s rotation.

Second, it may rotate on an axis perpendicular to the plane on which
the earth itself moves around the sun. The effect of this is to swing the
north pole of the heavens around a circle that is completed every 25,800
years. This motion, known to the astronomer as “precession,” introduces
a long period of change in the sky picture. By its use, the Planetarium
lecturer can set the instrument back some 5,000 years to 3,000 B.C. when
Alpha Draconis, a dim star in the constellation of the Dragon, was our
North Star. Or, by running the instrument ahead some 12,000 years, we
see Vega marking the north pole of the heavens and the Southern Cross
visible from the latitude of New York.

Third, the instrument may also be turned about an east-west axis to
simulate the change that occurs in the sky picture as one changes latitude

MAIN ENTRANCE TO AMERICAN MUSEUM—HAYDEN PLANETARIUM.

THE ZEISS PROJECTOR OF THE PLANETARIUM.

on the earth. Thus, it may show the sky as seen from the North Pole,
or, traveling south, one may see the Magellanic Clouds or the Southern
Cross. Use of this motion enables the lecturer to carry his audience
around the world in about five minutes.

| The motions of the sun, moon and planets are effected through a
complex arrangement of motors and gears so that they may be set in
any position relative to the stars for any date and hour for many centuries
backward or forward in time. This so-called annual motion also sets the
moon at its proper phase for any given time.

_ The dome itself, upon which the stars are seen, is made of perforated
steel, painted white on the inside, enclosed in-an outer shell of copper.
Under this great dome, the lecturer, with a complicated series of buttons,
dials and switches to control, and with over two thousand possible com-
/binations at his command, is virtually master of the universe.

ASTRONOMY AND THE AMERICAN MUSEUM—HAYDEN PLANETARIUM 37

——

SS ee

A mere physical description of this amazingly complex instrument
does not do justice to the breath- taking effect of a Planetarium showing.
To the visitor, it seems as if the walls of the great domed room have
disappeared, revealing the very depth and feeling of a star-studded sky
as the unclouded night slowly falls.

The Planetarium projector does not bring the entire sweep of the
sky story to the audience. Supplementary effects and techniques are
constantly developed to widen the range of action. Horizon scenes, a
rocket-ship interior, a swirling snow storm, eclipses, the radiance of
northern lights, thunderstorms and a host of accessory effects are created.
When combined with controlled lighting, music and special sound
effects, the result is what has frequently been called the most dramatic
of theatre productions.

Almost half a million persons visit the Planetarium each year to see
such performances as “Rocket to the Moon,” “The Beginning and the
End of the World,” “Color in the Sky,” “The Conquest of Space,” “Des-
tination Saturn” and the Christmas show, ‘The Star of Bethlehem.”
There is usually a change of show theme on the first day of each month
and demonstrations at scheduled times during the afternoons and eve-
nings of every day in the year. ,

The Hall of the Sun is on the first floor. Suspended from the ceiling
of this circular room, known as the Copernican Room, is a 48-foot model
of the solar system in which the naked-eye planets are seen moving
about the sun at their proper relative positions and speeds.

On the walls of this room are the constellations of the Zodiac whose
stars, in luminous paint, seem to scintillate against the deep blue back-
ground of the night sky.

The actual demonstration begins in this room with a preliminary
talk preparing the audience for the “sky show” in the dome on the second
floor. The floor of the Hall of the Sun is enriched by a reproduction in
terrazzo of the Aztec Calendar Stone. It was made by Victor Foscato
and symbolizes the sun which was to the Aztecs the most important of
the heavenly bodies.

A fine collection of astronomical paintings hangs on the Planetarium
walls. Opposite the main entrance on the first floor the visitor sees a
large mural painting and two panels by Charles R. Knight, depicting
many of the sky legends and myths of the American Indian. On the
second floor are the astronomical paintings of the late Howard Russell
Butler of Princeton. Perhaps his most striking canvases are the three
eclipse subjects shown over the southeast entrance to the dome. They
are lighted by a method devised by Mr. Butler which makes them appear
as realistic transparencies rather than as opaque paintings. The first
represents the eclipse of June 8, 1918, observed at Baker, Oregon; the
second, that of September 10, 1923, at Lompoc, California; and the third,
that of January 24, 1925, at Middletown, Connecticut.

Next to the eclipse paintings are seven large canvases of the hydrogen
prominences on the sun. ‘T'wo bizarre prominences, known as the “Eagle”
and the “Heliosaurus,”’ are shown. The latter’s resemblance to a dinosaur
suggested its name.

The Planetarium houses two of the world’s finest meteorites: the
Ahnighito, 3614 tons, and the Willamette, 1514 tons.

In the first floor corridor is an outstanding loan collection of
sundials, compasses and astronomical instruments, covering a range
from ancient Chinese instruments, through the elaborate metal instru-
ments made in the middle centuries in France and in Germany, down
to the very accurate compasses of modern navigation.

On the walls of the second floor may be seen large transparencies on
glass, consisting of astronomical photographs from various observatories
throughout the world. These include pictures of the sun and the moon,
the planets, star-fields and star-clusters, gaseous, planetary and spiral
nebulae, comets, meteors and meteor craters. Since many of them are
time exposures, they reveal the celestial objects far better than they can
be seen visually through the largest telescopes and show much detail
that would otherwise escape the eye.

A striking exhibit of astronomical phenomena, painted in lumines-
cent color activated by “black light,” is in the corridor on the first
floor. ‘These fourteen murals, covering an area of 4,000 square feet,
show in vivid detail such subjects as sun-spot activity, the Aurora Borealis,
solar prominences, eclipses of the sun and the moon, galactic nebulae
and our neighboring worlds, the planets.

Typical of the three-dimensional effect created by this recently de-
veloped technique is the mural of the Aurora Borealis. A curtain-type
aurora is seen from the Arctic Circle where such displays reach their
greatest brilliancy and color. Through moving light sources, the mural
seems to shimmer as actual Northern Lights do.

Many of the wall cases have been given over to dioramas of the
interior of the Mount Wilson Observatory, showing the 100-inch Hooker

TWO OF THE PLANETARIUM’S “BLACK LIGHT’’ MURALS. Left, corona observed during
total eclipse of the Sun; right, the Planet Saturn.

ASTRONOMY AND THE AMERICAN MUSEUM—HAYDEN PLANETARIUM 39

- —— =. eee _ —— =

Reflector; the 18th-century observatory at Jaipur, India; the ancient
observatory at Peking, China; and Sir Isaac Newton’s discovery that
sunlight is composed of the colors of the spectrum. Another group of
dioramas near the exit to the Roosevelt Memorial shows the various
phases of weather, explaining such phenomena as the formation of rain,
the action of a cold front and the mechanics of a hurricane.

Of constant interest to visitors are semi-permanent exhibits, as “The
Time Capsule,” “Your Weight on Other Worlds” and the “World
Clock.” Supplementary exhibits also include contemporary paintings,
special blow-up photographs, models, maps, charts, books and instru-
ments.

The combination of Planetarium projector and dome is ideal for

instructional purposes and unique courses for laymen are given during
the fall and spring seasons. Six courses in astronomy and navigation are
offered to the public, with sessions held once a week during the evening
hours. Special school-group showings provide supplementary back-
ground for studies in astronomy. Other instructed groups include West
Point Cadets, U. S. Power Squadron units, engineering classes from nearby
colleges, Scout groups and a variety of visiting convention groups. The
Planetarium is also available for special lectures at hours when there
are no regular performances.

The Book Corner is located near the main entrance to the Plane-
tarium on the first floor. Here visitors may receive expert help in the
choice of publications on astronomy, star identification, navigation and
meteorology. Also available are seasonal star-charts, star-atlases, revolv-
ing star-finders, post cards, prints, astronomical gadgets, pamphlets,
children’s books designed to stimulate their interest in star-gazing and
the “Sky Reporter,” a monthly bulletin describing the current Planeta-
rium demonstration, with sky maps and interesting information about
celestial events.

Planetarium staff members are frequently called upon for explana-
tions and advice about various astronomical, navigational, and meteorlog-
ical problems. With the recent heightened public interest in sky
phenomena, the Planetarium serves as a clearing house for information
to the public via the press, radio and television.

Thus, by well-integrated programs and active participation in school
and community functions, the American Museum-Hayden Planetarium
carries Out its major purpose — that of helping the public to interpret
for itself the vast body of scientific knowledge about astronomy and the
allied sciences in terms of its own need and desire to understand the
universe.

40 ASTRONOMY AND THE AMERICAN MUSEUM—HAYDEN PLANETARIUM

EEO aren eke OOO EOE

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

Geology is the study of the earth in its present condition and as it
was in past ages, back to the time of its origin as a planet. It is con-
cerned with the materials composing the minerals and rocks of the
earth and with the forces that have shaped these rocks into mountains,
hills, valleys, lakes, oceans and all other land forms that are so familiar
to us. It deals with the sequence of rocks as they were formed on the
earth, with the history of the earth as revealed by rock sequences and
by the fossilized remains of life contained within the rocks. Finally, it is
concerned with the history of life on the earth as shown by the study
of fossils.

Thus, the inclusive science of geology is made up of varied separate
sciences and these are often given distinct names, such as mineralogy for
the study of minerals, petrology for the study of rocks, physiography or
geomorphology for the study of land forms, structural geology for the
study of earth structure, stratigraphy for the study of layered rocks, and
paleontology for the study of ancient life on the earth.

The Department of Geology and Paleontology at The American
Museum of Natural History is interested primarily with the two divisions
of geology that are based mainly on Museum collections — paleontology
and mineralogy — although other aspects of the sciences are given some
attention. But since the work of the Museum is based to a large degree
on specimens, it is in those fields of geology where specimens — fossils
and minerals — are of particular importance that the work of the De-
partment is concentrated.

The Museum has one of the great mineral collections of the world,

and this collection is being studied and increased. The large fossil

collections are subdivided into several categories, each under the care
and direction of one or more authorities in his special field, assisted by
technicians. ‘Thus there is a collection of invertebrates, one of fishes,
one of amphibians and reptiles, and one of mammals. These collections
form the core around which are built comprehensive programs of re-
search, field studies, collecting activities, and exhibits. Thus, the exhibits
are one of the end results of extended scientific work and it is only
through active prosecution of basic studies upon collections and new
materials that the exhibits are kept authoritative and up to date.

At the present time, the exhibits of this Department are being revised.
Modern exhibits of geology and fossil invertebrates are planned for future
installation.

Scientific Work of the Department of Geology and Paleontology

The scientific work of the Department is concentrated, at the present
time, largely in the field of paleontology. Several programs of explora-
tion and research are being carried forward, with the result that the
collections of the Museum are being augmented and valuable new in-
formation is being published in technical papers, monographs, books
and popular articles.

On death and burial, plant remains, and the shells and hard skeletons
of mollusks, crustaceans and other invertebrates, are readily fossilized
and preserved in the rocks. Indeed, many rock strata are largely com-
posed of these fossil remains. Invertebrate remains are especially abun-
dant in rocks that were formed as sediments in ancient seas which, at
various times, covered almost all of the globe. Because of this abundance,
invertebrate fossils occupy a favored place in deciphering the history of
the earth and in the practical service of man.

The fossil invertebrates of each geologic epoch are distinctive, so
that, in general, they serve as the principal standards for the classifica-
tion and dating of rock strata, especially those of marine origin. This
is of great practical importance in mining, quarrying and in the search
for petroleum. Happenings in the development of the earth are referred
to a standard geologic time scale which was founded on the paleonto-
logical record, especially that of the invertebrate fossils. The evolutionary
history of these animals goes back more than a half billion vears, to the
Proterozoic era, well before the advent of the vertebrates and the land
plants.

Very small invertebrate fossils, such as the skeletons of protozoans,
are very commonly brought to the surface as oil wells are drilled, furnish-
ing needed information on the relative position of each formation
that is being penetrated, thus, in fact, guiding the drilling activity.

An active program of research in invertebrate paleontology, involving
laboratory studies and field expeditions to various parts of the world,
is being maintained. Studies in recent years have emphasized the im-
portant contribution that fossil invertebrates make in understanding
ecological conditions of past seas early in geologic time. Recent investi-

TRILOBITES. Primitive crustaceans called trilobites were abundant in the early
Paleozoic seas. These specimens (Dalmanites) were found in the Devonian rocks of
New York State.

gations have centered around marine fossils of Permian age in South
America and western Texas. Extended studies have been made of fossil
organic reefs and their enclosed fossils in the Permian rocks of western
Texas. This program includes comparative studies of modern coral reefs
in the Bahama Islands and the South Pacific.

The fossil remains of animals with backbones are first found in rocks
of Ordovician age, and they continue throughout the fossil record from
that time until the present. These fossils record the evolutionary history
of the vertebrates beginning with the fishes and ranging through the
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Since the vertebrates have
lived in many environments, their fossils are found in rocks formed from
continental fresh-water sediments as well as from marine sediments.

Like the fossil invertebrates, the fossil vertebrates can be used for
dating the rocks in which they occur, and in this respect they are of
particular importance in the study of continental sediments, in whicn
fossil invertebrates generally are not numerous.

‘The research program in fossil fishes currently involves the study of
various groups of higher bony ray-finned fishes from the age of Dinosaurs
and the early part of the Age of Mammals. One of the aims of this work
is to obtain information on the history and relationships of the modern
bony fishes. The Museum’s fossil fish collection, which is one of the
best of its kind, has an important role in these studies, and it is being
improved constantly by Museum expeditions, exchanges with other in-
stitutions and gifts from all parts of the world.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 43

The present research program on fossil amphibians and _ reptiles
emphasizes the study of Triassic reptiles from various parts of the world.
The purpose of this research schedule is to make known the animals that
lived just before and during the early stages of the Age of Dinosaurs,
a critical time in the evolution of reptiles. Extensive explorations have
been carried on and collections made in the southwestern United States
since the war, and much new material has been unearthed. In addition,
field studies have been made in certain foreign countries.

In the field of fossil mammals, work is directed especially toward the
collection and study of the primitive mammals that lived during early
Tertiary times and of the advanced mammals that inhabited North
America during the final phases of the Cenozoic era. Active collecting
programs are being followed in the southwestern part of the United
States for early Tertiary mammals, and in various sections of the west
for the later mammals of the Cenozoic. Many fossils and new faunas
have been found, to expand greatly our knowledge of the mammals that
lived on the earth in former days. Much research is also being done on
ancient South American mammals and on other problems of the evolu-
tion of this dominant group of animals.

All of this work on fossils reconstructs the history of life. It adds to
our record of animals through time, and gives much new evidence for
the interpretation of evolution. In addition, the research that is being
carried on at this Museum is concerned with the former distribution
and association of animals in the world, and the bearing that such
information has upon the past relationships of continents and the history
of climates.

The history of life helps us to understand the origin, nature and
destiny of man. Paleontology, as studied at this Museum, is concerned
with concepts, and of these the concept of evolution is one of the most
vital in our modern world. No single idea has revolutionized thought in
modern times so much as the theory of organic evolution. And, in the
study of evolution, the evidence and interpretation of fossils is of the
utmost importance.

MINERALS AND GEMS

Minerals are nature’s chemicals, and mineralogists have been able
to recognize over 1700 different species. THE MORGAN HALL OF
MINERALS AND GEMS is one of the outstanding collections of these
minerals in America and, in fact, in the world today. Displayed here are
many rare and unusuai specimens, some of particular beauty. With few
exceptions all of the known minerals are represented in this collection.
Some minerals are so rare that only single examples exist, while many
are so common that they are present almost everywhere in the earth's
crust.

A study of the earth’s crust shows that it consists of different kinds
of rocks, a few of which have familiar names such as granite, marble,
sandstone and slate. We see these rocks around us every day; they

OPALIZED WOOD. Opal is often found
as the replacing material in fossil or
petrified wood. Petrified wood is
formed by ground water dissolving
the woody matter from trees and
simultaneously depositing silica. The
fine texture of the original material
has been preserved in this specimen
from Lincoln County, Idaho.

form our mountains and canyons, and many of our buildings. On closer
examination it is found that each rock is composed of individual sub-
stances which we call minerals. For example, a handful of sand from the

seashore can be separated into various kinds of grains, and these grains

frequently represent a variety of minerals. Each has definite properties
of hardness, density, luster, color and transparency. These different kinds
of substances, then, which nature has used to make up sand and the other
materials of the earth’s crust are called minerals. All of the various
minerals may be classified on the basis of their chemical composition as
shown in the accompanying table.

‘The primary task of the mineralogist is to understand the physical,
chemical and historical aspects of the earth’s crust. The science of
mineralogy is, therefore, an integrated field of study related to geology
on the one hand, and to physics and chemistry on the other. What does
a professional mineralogist do? For example, if he wants to study a
new mineral deposit, he first must have an understanding of the geologic
setting in which the minerals are found, and he gains this by examining
and mapping the rock formations in the field. Without this knowledge
it would be impossible to speculate intelligently as to the origin of the
deposit. Next, each mineral must be identified in the laboratory. Some
minerals may be determined by inspection, whereas others yield their
identity only through chemical tests or the measurement of optical con-
stants by microscopic means, or in other ways. At times, the mineralogist
may make x-ray diffraction patterns of his minerals, since a crystalline
substance will give a regular pattern recorded on photographic film when
subjected to x-rays. The intensity and positions of these lines are charac-
teristic for each crystalline substance. He may, in addition, employ tools
borrowed from the chemist and physicist, such as differential thermal
analysis in which he subjects the mineral to a gradual rise in tempera-
ture, and observes the characteristic chemical changes which take place.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 45

Or he may use spectrographic measurements which are useful in detect-
ing minor elements which might be unnoticed by the usual qualitative
chemical procedures. After all of the minerals of a deposit have been
identified, the sequence of deposition can be worked out. Once this is
known, the mineralogist can speculate as to the origin of the minerals
and the nature of the conditions that gave rise to them.

All of the knowledge that the many mineralogists have gained after
years of patient observation and study have been arranged in systematic
form, and make up the science of mineralogy which may be outlined
as follows.

Crystallography -- An important branch of mineralogy which is con-
cerned with the internal arrangement of atoms and the external geo-
metric forms exhibited by minerals.

Physical mineralogy — This includes a consideration of the various physi-
cal properties such as hardness, cleavage, color, specific gravity, magnet-
ism, electrical properties, tenacity, as well as optical properties.

Chemical mineralogy —The various chemical properties, and also the
origin and formation of minerals are considered. This includes chemical
analysis, spectrographic techniques, x-ray fluorescence, and thermal
analysis.

Descriptive mineralogy —This is a systematic listing of the various
crystallographic, physical and chemical properties of minerals, and some-
thing of the environments in which they are found.

Determinative mineralogy — A classification of minerals based on physical
properties and chemical composition which facilitates identification.

Mineral substances and products are indispensable to the welfare,
health and standard of living of modern man, and are among the most
valued and jealously guarded of the natural resources of a nation. The
outstanding characteristic of the industrial era in which we live is the
wide application of machinery and the use of power. In the last analysis

QUARTZ. This large crystal from St. Gotthard, Switzerland, has
smaller crystals of quartz growing on its surface. Many minerals
occur as inclusions in quartz, and in this case actinolite needles
penetrate the quartz.

STIBNITE. Stibnite is a sulfide of the semi-
metallic substance known as antimony. The
slender orthorhombic prisms are made up
of many crystals joined parallel to each
other. The mineral is the chief source from
which antimony is obtained. The specimen
illustrated came from Inyo, Japan.

the significance of this civilization lies in the substitution of power
machinery for animal muscle. ‘This includes everything that has come
to our generation through the steam engine, dynamo, automobile, air-
plane and telephone. The inventions have brought about the use of
minerals in an ever-increasing quantity, and an ever-widening application.
Thus, as industrial techniques have become more complex, minerals that
contain metals with peculiarly distinctive properties such as aluminum,
vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum, chromium, cobalt and nickel (pre-
viously of interest only in the laboratory) have assumed real economic
importance. For example, platinum, in addition to its use in jewelry,
is a necessary catalyst in sulphuric acid making, and acts as a key which
unlocks a cheap process of chemical synthesis. Antimony is essential
to the production of clear printing type metal, and mercury is a key
metal in precise scientific instruments. All of the common materials
used in modern building, such as steel, cement, brick, glass and plaster
have their origin in minerals. The world demands more food, and as a
result the phosphates, potash and nitrates bulk large in the commodities
of commerce.

The methods of the mineralogist are used every day to solve practical
problems such as the manufacture of abrasives, ceramics, refractories,
synthetic crystals and steel. Mineralogy is an everyday tool with the
mining geologist and should be for the prospector in order that he may
identify properly the minerals which he finds. He must also know
something of certain mineral associations, which are so characteristic
that they may be important leads to the presence of others. Mineralogy
has been of direct help in military operations.

Recently, the search for and study of radioactive minerals has become
of great interest to mineralogists since these minerals form the basis for

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 47

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future atomic energy. Clays are being investigated as a possible guide
for the location of mineral deposits. Surprisingly enough, mineralogists
are being of help to medical science. Since many parts of our body con-
tain crystalline substances similar to minerals, they are capable of being
studied by mineralogical techniques.

THE MORGAN MEMORIAL HALL OF MINERALS AND GEMS
is, in general, arranged according to the chemical classification of minerals
shown on the accompanying table. Specimens from all these groups are
exhibited. The wall panel assemblage is a key exhibit to the large and
more detailed collection in the flat cases occupying the remainder of the
room, with the exception of the center aisle, which contains particularly
fine specimens of gem minerals. As one progresses around the room,
beginning with Panel A (at the left of the entrance) containing the native
elements, it is evident that many of the minerals form regular solids with
smooth faces which are characteristic of each mineral species. “These
regular forms are called crystals and are the external result of the un-
hampered growth and arrangement of the minute internal particles called
atoms. The collection also has a number of fine wooden crystal models
available for study. The recently acquired gold specimens from the
William Boyce Thompson Collection are excellent examples of the
crystallization of the native element gold. The sulphur crystals in Panel
A are another good example of crystallization. Well developed crystals
of the important iron mineral, hematite, are displayed in Panel M.
There are several rare crystals of barite, one of the sulfates, and a barium
mineral, in Panel AA.

Certain minerals among the many hundreds of different species are
of particular value and we call them gems, because they appeal to our
sense of beauty. The qualifications which make minerals gems include
beauty of color, a certain degree of transparency that permits the color
qualities to be developed by cutting and polishing, and sufhcient hard-
ness to preserve them against wear. In addition, the value of gems is
governed largely by their rarity, together with a fluctuating unknown
dictated by fashion.

The Morgan Collection contains several outstanding gems, including
the De Long Star Ruby, and the “Star of India,” the largest star sapphire
in the world. There are also notable diamond crystals, as well as glass
models of the world’s famous diamonds, both in the natural state and
after cutting. Several fine specimens of chrysoberyl are in the collection.
Occasionally, this aluminate of beryllium contains hair-like inclusions
arranged in parallel bundles, and when cut and polished is known as
“oriental cat’s eye.” The specimen from Kandy, Ceylon, is thought to
be one of the world’s finest.

Two cases illustrating the geology and minerals of New York State
are exhibited on the first floor of the Roosevelt Memorial. The char-
acteristic minerals together with the localities are indicated.

48 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

KUNZITE. Kunzite is the clear lilac to pink-
colored variety of spodumene. Crystals of
kunzite are usually prismatic and flat. The
locality from which this crystal and many
gems come is Pala, San Diego County,
California.

SILVER. This illustration shows a beautiful
reticulated group of silver crystals from
Kongsberg, Norway, a locality which has
produced magnificent specimens of crystal-
lized wire silver. Silver can be told from
other silver-appearing minerals by its mal-
leable nature, its silver-white color on a
fresh surface, and its high specific gravity.

BARITE. These tabular crystals of barite on
dolomite have come from Frizington, Cum-
berland, England. Barite, the chief source
of barium, is used largely in the paint in-
dustry and to a lesser extent as a filler in
paper and cloth, in cosmetics, and for
barium meals in medical radiology.

Table of the Chemical Classification of Minerals

Elements — About 20 elements in an uncombined form are found as
minerals, and are said to occur in the native state.

Example, gold, Au
Sulfides — These minerals consist principally of combinations of the

various metals such as copper and lead with sulfur, selenium, or tellurium.
The majority of the metallic ore minerals are in this class.

Example, galena, PbS

Sulfosalts — Minerals composed of lead, copper, or silver combined with
sulfur and antimony, arsenic, or bismuth are included in this class.
Example, enargite, Cus,AsS,

Oxides —a. Anhydrous oxides. The minerals of this class contain a
metal in combination with oxygen.

Example, hematite, Fe,O,

b. Hydrous oxides. The mineral oxides that contain water or the
hydroxyl (OH) as an important radical are included in this class.
Example, diaspore, Al,03.H,O

Halides —This class includes the chlorides, fluorides, bromides, and
iodides.

Example, fluorite, CaF,

Carbonates — ‘The minerals whose formulas include the carbonate radical,
COs, are in this group.

Example, calcite, CaCO,

Nitrates —'The minerals in this class can be considered salts of nitric
acid and contain the NOs radical.

Example, niter, KNO;

Borates —'Vhe borates are salts of boric acid.

Example, borax, Na,B,O;.10H,O

Phosphates — Minerals whose formulas include the phosphate radical,
PO,, comprise this group.

Example, apatite, Ca; (F,C1) (PO4)s;

Sulfates — Minerals whose formulas include the sulfate radical, SO, are
in this class.

Example, barite, BaSO,

Tungstates —'The few minerals whose formulas include the tungstate
radical, WO,, comprise this group.

Example, scheelite, CaWO,

Silicates —The minerals included in this group form the largest class
among minerals. ‘They contain various elements, the most common of

which are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and iron,
in combination with silicon and oxygen.

Example, quartz, SiO,

50 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

TIME SCALE OF EARTH HISTORY

DOMINANT
soko ANIMAL LIFE

| | Quaternary | | Recent
CENOZOIC :

70 MILLION | Pliocene

YEARS 70 Oligocene
DURATION eG Eocene
arias Paleocene

DURATION
OF PERIODS

MESOZOIC

120 MILLION
YEARS
DURATION

f20 | __ Pennsylvanian

Mississippian

Devonian
es

350 MILLION
YEARS

DURATION
Ordovician

PROTEROZOIC
1500 MILLION YEARS

DURATION BEGINNINGS OF LIFE

Figures in
millions of years

ARCHAEOZOIC

Only during the last 500,000,000 years have plants and animals produced hard parts i
capable of being fossilized. Here is a simplified chart of that quarter of the earth’s history.

FIRST FOSSIL HALL — Fishes to Early Dinosaurs

Fossil Fish Alcove

The known history of the fishes covers a time span of about 400
million years. During this long interval four main groups or classes of
fishes were evolved. The first group, called ostracoderms, were jawless
and had well developed bony armor. They were the ancestors of the
living lampreys and hagfishes. Some time during the Silurian period,
the ostracoderms gave rise to the second major category, the placoderms,
which were the first fishes with jaws. The placoderms evolved into a
number of distinct types, most of them with heavy, bony armor and
mobile, paired fins. They were the first rulers of the Devonian lakes and
seas.

The sharks and their relatives comprise the next main group of fishes.
They evolved from primitive placoderms, probably in the Silurian,
although the earliest remains of sharks are found in Devonian deposits.
Early sharks and sharklike forms were numerous and varied during the
Carboniferous or Coal Age. The group declined in the Permian and
Triassic periods, becoming more successful again in the Jurassic with
the rise of the types living today.

The fourth class includes all the higher bony fishes. This large and
varied assemblage likewise had a placoderm origin, probably during the
Silurian period. At the time of their first appearance in the fossil record,

the bony fishes were already separable into two subclasses; the ray-finned —

forms that evolved into the common fishes of today, and the fishes with
internal nostrils. The ray-finned types separated into numerous evolu-
tionary lines before the Mesozoic era or Age of Dinosaurs. The fishes
with internal nostrils included the crossopterygians and the dipnoans or
lungfish. These earliest lung breathers were particularly numerous dur-
ing the Devonian period. The crossopterygians are of great interest
since they gave rise to the first land-living vertebrates. They are repre-
sented today by a single form. a fish called Latimeria, which lives in the
coastal waters of South Africa. The lungfishes, once widely distributed,
have persisted to the present time in South America, Africa and
Australia.

The history of the fishes, as briefly summarized above, is illustrated
in a series of simplified, synoptic exhibits in the Fossil Fish Alcove which
is located at the west or far end of the First Fossil Hall. The visitor
should walk in a counterclockwise direction within the Alcove when ex-
amining these exhibits, beginning with the family tree of the fishes which
is to the right of the Alcove entrance.

Suspended above the entrance to the Alcove are the restored jaws
of a Miocene fossil shark (Carcharodon megalodon). The plaster jaws
are modeled after those of a living relative and they support the actual
fossil teeth. This giant shark, which is closely related to the modern
white-shark or man-eater, attained an estimated length of 46 feet.

52 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY »

i a

-
~
:
-
t
:
5

First land-dwelling vertebrates

Lobe-finned fishes

Fray-finned fishes

Higher bony fishes

Shark-like fishes

First fishes with jaws

Primitive jawless fishes

FAMILY TREE OF THE MAJOR GROUPS OF FISHES.

sanineaitiemteiaetii

Inside the Alcove, is a simplified family tree of all the major groups
of fishes discussed in the introductory paragraphs. It illustrates in graphic
form the complexity of fish evolution and points out the relationships
and classification of the major groups. If the visitor is interested in the
details of fish evolution, it may prove helpful to refer to this tree from
time to time while examining the other exhibits in order to note the
relationship of a particular group to the others.

Moving from right to left, the next exhibit is devoted to the oldest
known vertebrates, the jawless fishes or ostracoderms. ‘Typical examples
of these ancient, armored forms are reconstructed in the models, while
the cut-outs show some details of structure and variation in the form of
the head armor. The ostracoderms include both bottom-dwellers and
more active swimmers. In the left half of the same case are examples
of the first jawed fishes, the placoderms. They existed in great variety
during the Devonian period. The acanthodians were the most generalized
types and they lasted into the Permian period. The others, which became
extinct at the end of the Devonian, developed a variety of body shapes
and elaborations of the bony armor. Coccosteus and his larger relative
Dinichthys were predators; Bothriolepis and such types as Lunaspis
were bottom-feeders. An actual skull of Dinichthys from Devonian beds
near Cleveland is exhibited in a separate case. On the wall above the
fire exit is a model of Dinichthys in the act of overtaking some primitive
Devonian sharks (Cladoselache).

The next case on the left illustrates the long history of the sharks
and their distant relatives the chimaeroids or ratfishes. Because the
shark skeleton is made of cartilage, which disintegrates rapidly, it is

A TRIASSIC RAY-FINNED FISH. Semionotus was a probable ancestor of the modern
gars.

A GIANT CRETACEOUS TELEOST FISH. Portheus lived in a large inland sea that cov-
ered much of central North America in late Cretaceous time. This specimen was
discovered in the chalk beds of western Kansas.

rarely fossilized. Under exceptional conditions, however, shark skeletons
were preserved, and in one Devonian form (Cladoselache) even some
muscle and kidney tissue was fossilized. Shark teeth, by contrast, are
among the commonest of vertebrate fossils. Examples of the main types
of teeth are displayed in this case. Fossil chimaeroids are known mostly
from their teeth. The Paleozoic forms, called bradyodonts, had _ their
teeth arranged as crushing plates and presumably they were mollusk
eaters. The skull and some parts of the skeleton are preserved in the
Carboniferous Helodus. Vhe later chimaeroids, leading to the living
marine Chimaera, are represented mostly by dental plates and spines.

The diorama represents a middle Devonian underwater lake scene
about 300 million years ago. The fishes that swam in this lake are now
preserved as fossils in the flagstones around Achanarras, Scotland, where
they occur in considerable abundance. The models show the fishes as
they appeared in life, although their coloring is, of course, hypothetical.
The various types of fishes that lived together in this ancient lake —
placoderms, primitive ray-finned forms, crossopterygians and lungfish
—make up the fossil fish fauna of the Achanarras deposit. ‘The vegeta-
tion, a simple aquatic plant or alga and submerged stems of the earliest
land plants, also existed in middle Devonian time.

The exhibit to the right of the fire exit outlines the complex history
of the bony ray-finned fishes or actinopterygians. This large and diverse
group is usually divided into three subgroups which actually represent
broad, successive stages of specialization. These subgroups are termed
the chondrostean, holostean and teleostean, typified by the sturgeon, the
gar and the perch. The primitive chondrosteans, of which the Devonian
Cheirolepis is a good example, developed a number of evolutionary
lines that independently reached the holostean level. Thus, such holos-
teans as the modern gar and bowfin (Amia) had a separate ancestry
beginning some time late in the Paleozoic era. The teleosts, including
the great majority of living fishes (herring, catfish, perch, halibut, etc.)

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 55

probably arose from a single ancestral stock in the Jurassic period. Since
that time they have had an explosive evolution; there are more families
of teleosts than in all the other major groups of fishes put together. On
the wall above the shark exhibit is the fossil skeleton of a large Cretaceous
teleost, Portheus molossus, from the chalk beds of Kansas.

The final exhibit, next to the Alcove entrance, considers the fishes
with internal nostrils. ‘The presence of internal nostrils indicates that
these fishes came to the surface for air-breathing, and that they had true
lungs in addition to gills. The central portion of the case shows the
changes that occurred in the skull roof, the front or pectoral fin and the
backbone during the transition from a primitive crossopterygian fish to
an early land-living vertebrate or amphibian. This great event in verte-
brate evolution took place in the Devonian period when seasonal droughts
forced the crossopterygians to move over the dry stream beds in search
of water and thus to explore the possibilities of land existence. The
history of the coelacanth fishes, which arose from the Devonian cross-
opterygians, is illustrated on the right, ending in the living Latimeria.
On the left are the fresh-water lungfishes or dipnoans, likewise descended
from the Devonian crossopterygians. Both the coelacanths and the dip-
noans evolved slowly, the modern representatives showing a marked
resemblance to their ancestors.

Early Reptiles and Dinosaurs

The First Fossil Hall is dominated by the skeletons of three upper
Jurassic dinosaurs, placed on a large island in the middle of the hall.
The largest of the three skeletons, that of Brontosaurus, is almost seventy
feet in length and is some eighteen feet high at the hips. In life Bron-
fosaurus must have weighed thirty or forty tons. The aggressive, meat-
eating dinosaur, Allosaurus, probably preyed upon the big, inoffensive
plant-eaters such as Brontosaurus, and in this group Allosaurus is
mounted as if feeding upon a brontosaur backbone. The third dinosaur
in the group is the plated dinosaur, Stegosaurus, another plant-eating
form.

A truly dramatic exhibit in this hall is the series of original brontosaur
tracks, set into the base of the central dinosaur island. ‘This track-way
was excavated near Glen Rose, Texas, and reassembled in the Museum.
In it are to be seen six forefoot and six hindfoot impressions made by a
gigantic brontosaur as it tramped through a limy mud millions of years
ago. The three-toed tracks of an allosaur follow those of the brontosaur,
and since two of the allosaur tracks are super-imposed upon two of the
large brontosaur tracks, it is evident that the meat-eating dinosaur was
actually following the big plant-eater. Here, preserved in stone, is a
story from the ancient geologic past!

The walls of the First Fossil Hall are decorated with mural drawings
illustrating some of the animals that lived during the late Paleozoic and
Mesozoic eras, The Age of Reptiles. Several assemblages of animals — or

——

faunas — are illustrated. These include the amphibians and reptiles that
lived during the Permian times in what is now Texas, the Permian reptiles
found in the Karroo desert of South Africa, the Chinle fauna of ‘Triassic
age from the southwestern part of the United States, the Morrison fauna
that spread over western North America in the late Jurassic umes, the
Belly River fauna of western Canada, and the Lance fauna, the last of
all dinosaurian faunas in North America. Also are shown various marine
reptiles that lived during the Age of Reptiles, when dinosaurs ruled
the land.

The exhibits in the wall cases of this hall are arranged in a sequence
that begins at the west end of the hall, near the entrance to the Alcove
of Fossil Fishes. On the left side of the doorway is a case illustrating the
origin and evolution of the first land-living vertebrates, the amphibians.
This exhibit shows how the amphibians arose from fishes and how they
developed along several evolutionary lines, the most important of which
is that of the labyrinthodont amphibians. In the labyrinthodonts of
Permian times, as represented by Eryops, shown here by skulls and a
skeleton, the amphibians reached the culmination of their evolutionary
development and for a brief time were in active competition with the
reptiles for dominance of the land. The last of the labyrinthodonts
lived in the Triassic period and are exemplified by the large, flattened
form, Buettneria. With the close of Triassic times the labyrinthodonts
became extinct, but before dying out they gave rise to the frogs and toads.
Various other amphibians were contemporaneous with the labyrintho-
donts, such as the bizarre animals represented in this exhibit by the
genus Diplocaulus, a flat creature with an excessively broad skull, shaped
rather like an arrowhead.

In this case are also to be seen the first reptiles, derived from amphibian
ancestors. ‘The transition from the amphibians into the first reptiles was
so gradual that it is difficult to draw a distinct line between the two
classes of vertebrates. Seymouria is such a perfect intermediate form that
the problem of whether it is properly an amphibian or a reptile is the
subject of much scientific debate. A cast of the earliest known reptilian
egg is seen as the central theme in this exhibit of the first reptiles; the
original, in the Museum at Harvard University, was found in Permian
sediments in north central Texas. [wo primitive reptiles are exhibited
in separate floor cases. One of these is Diadectes, from the Permian red
beds of Texas; the other is Scutosaurus, from the Permian of northern
Russia.

On the right side of the doorway leading to the Fossil Fish Alcove
is an exhibit of mammal-like reptiles or therapsids from South Africa.
These reptiles reached an advanced stage of evolution at an early date
and some of them were directly ancestral to the mammals. In the center
of the exhibit is a rare skeleton of one of the mammal-like reptiles,
Lycaenops. Some therapsids developed along lines that were not directly
ancestral to the mammals, but rather toward other areas of specialization.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 57

The dicynodonts were large, plant-eating therapsids in which the teeth
were suppressed except in the male animals, which had a pair of upper
tusks in the skull. The dinocephalians were large therapsids, some of
which were carnivorous and some herbivorous. A skeleton of Moschops,
one of the plant-eating dinocephalians, is exhibited in a separate floor
case.

Along the south wall of the hall, opposite the skeleton of Allosaurus,
is a range of cases exhibiting pelycosaur reptiles from the Permian beds
of Texas and Oklahoma. The pelycosaurs were related to the mammal-
like reptiles of South Africa. They were frequently specialized in rather
strange ways. For instance, the predaceous form, Dimetrodon, had a large
sail on its back formed by an elongation of the spine of the vertebrae.
Edaphosaurus, a water-dwelling, mollusk-eating pelycosaur, also had a
huge sail on the back, in this case complicated by numerous bony cross-
bars, like the yardarms on the mast of an old sailing vessel. The purpose
of these sails is entirely a matter of conjecture. Cotylorhynchus was a
large, heavy pelycosaur with a small skull.

Across the hall from the exhibit of Permian pelycosaurs is a series
of cases in which are seen Triassic reptiles that lived during the early
part of the Age of Dinosaurs. In the Triassic period reptiles other than
dinosaurs were dominant, especially the large phytosaurs, of which a
skeleton and some skulls are shown here. The phytosaurs, although they
looked much like crocodiles, were not of crocodilian relationship. They
preceded the crocodilians, and it was only after the phytosaurs became
extinct, at the end of the Triassic period, that the crocodilians began
their evolutionary development. The large slab of phytosaur bones
exhibited in this case was found beneath the palisade cliffs of the Hudson
River, about a half-mile south of the George Washington Bridge. An-
other fossil of local origin is the small skeleton of the primitive reptile
Hypsognathus, discovered in a rock quarry between Clifton and Passaic
New Jersey. Hypsognathus was the last of the cotylosaurian reptiles, and
is related to some of the Permian cotylosaurs that are exhibited in the
southwest corner of the hall.

A skeleton of a Triassic dinosaur, Plateosaurus, is displayed in a floor
case near the wall cases just described. This specimen, from the upper
Triassic sediments of Germany, represents a stage of evolution ancestral
to the giant sauropod dinosaurs, such as Brontosaurus. Of particular
importance in the study of dinosaurs are the skeletons of a primitive
Triassic theropod, exhibited in the wall cases on the north wall and
toward the east end of the hall. These skeletons, of the genus Coe-
lophysis, were excavated several years ago at Ghost Ranch in New
Mexico, and they are among the most complete dinosaur remains ever
discovered. Numerous skeletons, complete to the smallest bones and
fully articulated, were found at Ghost Ranch. These represent animals
in various stages of growth, and together they give us detailed informa-
tion about the primitive dinosaurs. In this same case is a family tree of
the dinosaurs, illustrated by scale models.

PRIMITIVE DINOSAURS OF THE TRIASSIC
PERIOD. The two skeletons of Coelophysis,
exhibited as they were found in the rock,
are among the most perfect dinosaur skele-
tons ever discovered. These dinosaurs were
close to the ancestral stock from which later
dinosaurs evolved.

Across the hall, on the south wall, is a case containing an exhibit
of Morrison dinosaurs, contemporaneous with the skeletons that are
displayed on the center island.

At the east end of the hall, on either side of the doorway that leads
into the corridor, are exhibits that illustrate such topics as the means
of locomotion, defense, method of feeding, and the geologic and geo-
graphic distribution of the dinosaurs.

In the corridor between the First and Second Fossil Halls are dis-
played marine reptiles that lived during the Age of Dinosaurs. Here are
seen the fish-like ichthyosaurs, numerous in Jurassic and Cretaceous seas.
A series of ichthyosaurs from Jurassic sediments in Germany show stages
of growth. Also a mollusk-eating marine reptile, Placodus, is exhibited
here, and in addition some plesiosaurs, the skeleton of a plesiosaur from
the upper Jurassic of England. On the wall of the corridor opposite
the entrance to this hall is the skeleton of a giant mosasaur of Cretaceous
age. he mosasaurs were lizards that became adapted for swimming
and developed to great size.

SECOND FOSSIL HALL — Late Dinosaurs

The Second Fossil Hall is devoted largely to the dinosaurs that lived
during the Cretaceous period, immediately before the dinosaurs became
extinct. Although other reptiles are exhibited in this hall, dinosaurs
are dominant, as is evident from the large skeletons in the center of the
hall and around the walls.

In the center of the hall are the skeletons of three large dinosaurs
that lived together at the very end of Cretaceous times. These are

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 59

THE GIANT CARNIVOROUS DINOSAUR (Tyrannosaurus). This late Cretaceous dinosaur
was the largest of all land-living, meat-eating animals. It preyed upon other large
dinosaurs.

Tyrannosaurus, the largest of the carnivorous or meat-eating dinosaurs
and the largest flesh-eating animal ever to live on the land; Triceratops,
a horned dinosaur that lived upon plants; and Trachodon, an aquatic
dinosaur, also a plant-eater.

The skeleton of Tyrannosaurus is some 45 feet in length, and as
mounted it stands about 20 feet high at the top of the head. The huge
skull. armed with sharp teeth, is in a case on the floor where it can be
seen near at hand; a plaster replica is placed on the skeleton. Skeletons
of Gorgosaurus, a predatory dinosaur similar but not quite so specialized
as Tyrannosaurus, are seen on either side of the doorway at the south
end of the hall. At this end of the hall are displayed also the skeletons
of Ornithomimus, a comparatively small and lightly-built theropod
dinosaur, related in a general way to the large carnivors just described.
Ornithomimus was adapted for swift running and for feeding upon fruits
and small animals.

Trachodon is often called a “duck-billed” dinosaur because the front
of the skull is flattened and expanded into a sort of bill. Because of this
skull structure it is probable that Trachodon shoveled in the mud at
the bottom of rivers and lakes for its food. There are various indications
that this was an aquatic dinosaur, among them being a remarkable
petrified mummy, displayed near the mounted skeletons, in which not
only the bones but also the skin are preserved. This specimen shows
that the skin in the duck-billed dinosaurs was of leathery texture, and
that there were webs between the toes of the front feet, as might be
expected in a swimming animal. Other members of this group repre-
sented in the hall by skeletons are Corythosaurus, Saurolophus and

60 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

_ =

THE DUCK-BILLED DINOSAUR (Trachodon). These were water-living, plant-eating
dinosaurs that used the flat, duck-like bill for gathering aquatic vegetation. They
lived along the shores of rivers and lakes in late Cretaceous times.

Procheneosaurus. Also there is a case showing the evolution of the skull
in the duck-billed dinosaurs. Many of these reptiles developed large
crests on the top of the skull, formed by an upgrowth of the premaxillary
and nasal bones, and these contained extended loops of the nasal
Passages.

Related to the duck-billed dinosaurs were the peculiar troodonts or
bone-headed dinosaurs, in which there was a great mass of bone above
the brain. These animals reached the culmination of their evolution in
Pachycephalosaurus, a skull of which is exhibited.

Ihe horned dinosaurs, or ceratopsians, were plant-eaters, well adapted
for defending themselves by fighting. “They were something like rhinoc-
eroses in the modern world. The skeleton of Triceratops shows the char-
acteristic pose of a ceratopsian dinosaur, with the huge head lowered
to present the three long, sharp horns at an adversary. ‘hese dinosaurs
had a large frill on the back of the skull, which served in part as a
protection for the neck and in part as an enlarged area of attachment
for heavy jaw and neck muscles. Various horned dinosaurs other

DINOSAURS AND THEIR EGGS. Protoceratops was a small, primitive horned dinosaur
that lived in Mongolia during the Cretaceous period. The two skeletons are shown
with a reconstructed nest of eggs.

A MAMMAL-LIKE REPTILE FROM SOUTH AFRICA. Lycaenops was a Permian reptile,
belonging to the group of advanced reptiles that were ancestral to the first mam-
mals. It exhibits many mammal-like characters in the skeleton.

than Triceratops are on display, notably Monoclonius, with a single
large horn on the nose and Styracosaurus, with spikes around the frill
of the skull, in addition to the nasal horn. Of particular interest are
ithe skeletons and eggs of Protoceratops, a small ceratopsian that was
approximately ancestral to the larger types. The skeletons and eggs of
Protoceratops were found at Djadochta in Outer Mongolia, by the
Central Asiatic Expedition of this Museum. Several nests of eggs were
discovered, and in some of the eggs are fossilized embryos of the dinosaur.
These were the first dinosaur eggs to be discovered, and they confirmed
previous speculations as to the method of reproduction in the dinosaurs.
_ One other group of dinosaurs, the armored dinosaurs, is exhibited
in this hall by a skeleton of Nodosaurus with the body armor in place,

|
| GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 63

J¥

and by part of a skeleton of Palaeoscincus. These dinosaurs were com-
pletely covered on top by heavy bony armor that protected them against
attack from the large carnivorous dinosaurs of the time.

On the left side of the doorway at the north end of the hall is a
display of the pterosaurs or flying reptiles. ‘These reptiles arose in Jurassic
times, at about the time the birds were first evolving, and for some time
they shared the skies with the early birds. There were many forms of
flying reptiles, some of them as small as sparrows, others, like the giant
Pteranodon on the wall, with a wing spread of twenty feet or more. In
these reptiles the fourth finger of the hand was elongated for a wing
support, and the wing itself was formed by a large fold of skin.

On the other side of the doorway from the pterosaur exhibit is a
display outlining the evolution of birds.

THIRD FOSSIL HALL — Age of Mammals

The beginning of the Age of Mammals was characterized by a radical
change in the kinds of vertebrate animals that inhabited the earth. The
dinosaurs had disappeared at the end of the Cretaceous period, and with
them the great swimming reptiles and the bizarre pterodactyls or flying
reptiles. Although the mammals had already evolved from their reptilian
ancestors by the Jurassic period, they did not begin to dominate the land
until the beginning of the Tertiary period.

‘The Third Fossil Hall, located in the southeast tower area, has been
designed to illustrate a number of topics that may be logically con-
sidered with the first part of the Age of Mammals. As the visitor enters
this hall from the Second Fossil Hall, he will notice ahead of him a
large semicircular exhibition case, the right part of which is devoted
to the important question of why and how animals became extinct in
the geologic past. The left part introduces the history of the mammals
with a family tree showing the relationships of the various mammalian
orders.

The reptiles that survived the Age of Dinosaurs include the crocodil-
ians, the lizards and snakes and the turtles. These groups are considered
in a series of synoptic exhibits along the corridor that leads from the
Second to the Fourth Fossil Hall. Here are seen the skull of a late
Cretaceous giant crocodile, Phobosuchus, trom Texas and the shell
and skeleton of a giant Pleistocene tortoise from India.

The story of the rise of the mammals begins with an exhibit on the
origin of the mammals which is located beside the entrance to the Late
Dinosaur Hall. Here the visitor may compare the skeleton of a reptile
and a mammal, and note the differences in the method of reproduction
of these two Classes of vertebrates as well as the differences in growth
patterns. A series of models demonstrates the transformation of the
skull and skeleton from reptile to mammal.

The next exhibit illustrates the first true mammals, which lived
together during the Age of Dinosaurs. They are known mostly from)
fragmentary skulls and teeth. Together with actual specimens of these

64 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

first mammals, are enlarged models of lower jaws, skulls and_ teeth.
These have been placed on a family tree to show how they were related
to each other and to their later and more familiar descendants.

The marsupials are a well-defined group of mammals including the
common opossum and the kangaroo. ‘Their most distinctive character
is the usual presence of a pouch on the belly of the female, in which the
young, born at a very immature stage, are carried for some time alter
birth. There are also various characters in the skeleton that make it
possible to distinguish the marsupials, fossil and living, from the great
group of placental mammals to which man belongs. ‘Vhe exhibit on
marsupials emphasizes the separate evolution of these animals into a
variety of forms, many of which closely resemble various placental
mammals. ‘The marsupials were most successful in South America and
particularly in Australia where they were for long periods not in direct
competition with the placental mammals. In the adjoining case is a
cast of the skeleton of Diprotodon, the largest known marsupial.

The placental mammals were not derived from the marsupials,
although they and the marsupials had a common ancestor. ‘The placentals
multiplied and diversified rapidly in the Paleocene and particularly in
the Eocene epochs. Quite distinctive assemblages existed in each of these
periods along with characteristic plants and invertebrate animals, as
shown by the exhibits that present cross-sections of early Tertiary life.

One such cross-section includes fishes of the early part of the Age
of Mammals. Although little is known about the early evolution of the
advanced bony fresh-water fishes, modern types are almost unknown in
the fossil record until the Eocene period. Examples are exhibited of the
various fossil fishes that occur in several large Eocene lake deposits in
Wyoming, Colorado and Utah. In these lakes of 50 million years ago
lived garfish, herrings, catfish and numerous other forms with close
recent relatives.

Across the corridor is a series of skeletons of the first hoofed mammals
or condylarths from the Paleocene and Eocene epochs. The long, low
skull, short limbs and long tail were primitive characters shared for the
most part with the earliest flesh-eating mammals. Meniscotherium was
a small condylarth, about the size of a cat. Ectoconus, with its rela-
tively small skull and heavy limbs had the dimensions of a large dog.
Phenacodus, approaching the size of a tapir, represents the stock from
which the odd-toed hoofed mammals (such as horses) probably arose.

SKELETON AND RESTORATION OF A PRIMITIVE HOOFED MAMMAL (Ectoconus). This
ancient mammal, from the Paleocene period, was quite generalized and apparently
ate a variety of foods.

Skeletons of Coryphodon and Uintatherium represent two different
groups of archaic hoofed mammals, descended from the primitive condy-
larths, that lived during the first part of the Age of Mammals. A
family tree of these animals is displayed around the corner from the
Uintatherium skeleton. In the semicircular end case is a skeleton of a
Pliocene “earth pig” or aardvark (Orycteropus). Aardvarks are living
today in Africa. The structure of the aardvark skeleton suggests that
this curious animal may have evolved from the condylarths, although
the skull is highly specialized.

Across the alcove from the family tree of the archaic ungulates is an
exhibit concerned with the important subject of historical zoogeography.
Here are explained some of the factors that have influenced the distribu-
tion of animals, particularly land mammals, in the geologic past —
migration, the geographic isolation of groups of animals, their radiation
from a point of origin and their sequence of arrival on a particular
continent.

A general consideration of historical zoogeography naturally leads to
an example of animal distribution and to the evolutionary effects of this
distribution on the animals themselves. At the very beginning of the
Age of Mammals, North and South America were connected by the
Panama land bridge. At this time, three different groups of mammals
crossed the bridge into South America: primitive marsupials, the an-
cestors of the armadillos and sloths, and one group of early hoofed
mammals. Following this invasion, the land bridge sank beneath the
sea and remained submerged until just before the beginning of the Ice
Age, perhaps 3 million years ago. During this long period of isolation,
the early immigrants into South America evolved along diverse lines.
Across the corridor is a cast of the skeleton of Macrauchenia, a highly
specialized descendant of the condylarth immigrants. This creature
probably had a short elephant-like trunk which, together with its long
neck and legs, must have presented a most bizarre appearance. In this
section of the hall, the visitor can examine other mammals from South
America. The notoungulates, evolved from the condylarths, were ex-
tremely varied, as the exhibits show. Toxodon lived in the Pliocene and
Pleistocene epochs and, in build, must have resembled a short-legged
rhinoceros. Scarrittia, from the Oligocene epoch, was a distant relative
of Toxodon.

The edentates are a distinctive order of mostly South American
mammals including the anteaters, armadillos and sloths. Grouped
together in a dramatic manner in the tower alcove are some extinct
descendants of the edentates that invaded South America during the
Paleocene epoch. Included with them is the small Eocene Metacheiromys,
a primitive edentate from North America. The ground sloths became
common early in edentate history, and Hapalops is a typical Oligocene-
Miocene form. Megalocnus got to Cuba by the Pleistocene. Mylodon and
Lestodon were the giants of their kind, the former reaching North
America after the land bridge was reestablished in the Pleistocene.

The armadillos were abundant and varied in South America by
the Miocene. An early offshoot of the armadillo stock includes the
glyptodons, which developed their protective armor into an immovable
mass of solid, bony plates. By the Pliocene epoch they became very
large, and in the Pleistocene epoch they migrated into ‘Texas and across
to Florida. Glyptodon and Panochthus are representative examples.

In the corridor near the Fourth Fossil Hall is an exhibit of the first
flesh-eating mammals, or carnivores, called creodonts. “The creodonts
lived during the first part of the Age of Mammals and their remains
have been found on all the continents except South America and
Australia. Most of them had long, low skulls with a small braincase.
In such forms as Oxyaena, the dentition was of the shearing type
characteristic of later carnivores. The teeth of Mesonyx, on the other
hand, had blunt, crushing cusps. The creodonts were the ancestors of
all the later carnivores — the cats, hyaenas, civets, dogs, bears, racoons,
mustelids, and also the seals and walruses.

The only placental mammals known from the Age of Dinosaurs

belong to a group known as insectivores. These ancient placental mam-
mals are exceedingly rare and of great value in evolutionary studies.
“Modern insectivores include the moles, shrews and hedgehogs. Certain
‘Cretaceous members of this group, such as the tiny Deltatheridium from
Mongolia, must be close to the ancestral stock from which all the other
placental mammals arose. The skull of this form, which is the only
part of the skeleton known, is exceedingly primitive and generalized for
a placental mammal. A family tree of the insectivores is displayed in a
case across the corridor from the creodont exhibit.
To the right of the insectivore exhibit are two unrelated groups of
‘early mammals descended from the insectivores. The taeniodonts in-
habited North America during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs. ‘They
had high, peg-like teeth and short skulls with deep, powerful lower
jaws. The limbs were short and stout. The tillodonts are known only
‘from the Eocene epoch in North America. The skull had a small brain-
‘case and the molar teeth were low-crowned; the skeleton was rather
bear-like in its proportions.

To the left of the insectivore exhibit is a large panel presenting a
synoptic tree of the primates, the order of mammals to which man
belongs. The primates evolved from the insectivore stock at the begin-
ning of the Paleocene epoch. During the Paleocene and Eocene the early
primates were numerous and divided into a number of separate evolu-
tionary lines. Many of these then became extinct, but some continued
on through the Age of Mammals to produce lemurs, Tarsius, the New
and Old World monkeys, the apes and, of course, man — all living today.

FOURTH FOSSIL HALL— AGE OF MAMMALS
Osborn Memorial

The fossil record for a few groups of mammals is unusually complete,
and it is possible to follow evolutionary changes in the skeleton for

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 67

TITANOTHERES. These long-extinct relatives of the horses and rhinoceroses began
as small animals about the size of a fox (Eotifanops, right, and Brontops, center).
The last of the titanotheres, such as the gigantic Brontotherium (left), had large
horn-like processes on the skull.

many millions of years. This hall is especially concerned with some of
the better known records in the history of the placental mammals.

The south side of the hall illustrates the evolution of the various
types of odd-toed ungulates or perissodactyls. Descended from the
earliest hoofed mammals or condylarths, the perissodactyls were separated
into the horses, rhinoceroses, tapirs and several now-extinct lines by the
beginning of the Eocene epoch. One of the extinct groups, called titan-
otheres, existed only during the Eocene and Oligocene. As may be
noted in the alcove beside the Third Fossil Hall entrance, they evolved in
this relatively short span of time from the fox-sized Eotitanops to the
eigantic Brontotherium with large, horn-like processes on its skull.

Another alcove is concerned with the extinct chalicotheres and the
tapirs. Moropus, a skeleton of which is near the center of the hall, was a
Miocene chalicothere, It had a long neck, shorter hind than front legs,
and, most curious of all, claws instead of hoofs. A synoptic family tree
of the perissodactyls is exhibited at the back of this alcove.

The rhinoceroses had a complicated fossil history and several dis-
tinct lines were evolved. Hyrachyus and Hyracodon, in the adjacent
alcove, are examples of slimly built Eocene and Oligocene running
rhinoceroses. Amynodon and particularly Metamynodon, represented
by complete skeletons in separate cases, were short-legged, hippopotamus-
like forms. Trigonias and Teleoceras, also in individual cases, were
close to the ancestry of the living rhinoceroses. The large block of
Diceratherium bones, including the skulls of twenty-one individuals,
gives some conception of the enormous number of these animals that
lived in Nebraska during the Miocene period.

The history of the horses has long been of interest to students of
evolution. The changes that occurred between the early Eocene Hyraco-
therium-eohippus and the modern horse can be traced with great

68 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

OLIGOCENE

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. The

important changes from the Eocene eohippus to
the modern horse are illustrated here by the skull and feet.

SELMA

S SS

MAMMALS OF THE UPPER PLIOCENE IN ARIZONA. In the foreground (left) is the
large armadillo-like Glypotherium and (right) the single-toed horse Plesippus.
Herds of the camel Pliauchenia and the mastodon called Stegomastodon are seen
in the distance.

A GROUP OF MIOCENE CAMEL SKELETONS (Stenomylus). Some of these are mounted
in characteristic attitudes as if they were alive, others are lying on the rock matrix
as their remains were actually found by a Museum expedition. These camels
inhabited America at the beginning of the Miocene period.

exactness because of the excellence of the horse fossil record. A series
of progressively later horses demonstrates the reduction in the number
of toes to the single functional toe of the modern forms. ‘The lengthening
of the limbs and the skull and the increase in general body size are
well demonstrated.

Across the hall several alcoves are devoted to the many and _ varied
even-toed ungulates or artiodactyls. The family tree of the artiodactyls
shows the relationships of certain living members of the group (which
includes the pigs, peccaries, hippopotami, camels, deer, giraffes, antelopes
and cattle), and a few of the many fossil families. The artiodactyls, like
the perissodactyls, evolved from the condylarths.

Perhaps the most successful artiodactyls of the Middle Tertiary in
North America were the oreodonts. These rather pig-like ruminants
were very abundant, particularly in the Oligocene and Miocene periods.
The agriochoerids, represented by the skeleton of Agriochoerus, re-
sembled the oreodonts except that the feet bore claws rather than hoofs.

The pigs of the Old World and the living peccaries of the New World
had a long separate history. Skulls of typical examples of each group
are shown.

Stenomylus was a small Miocene camel that lived in North America.
The group in the center aisle is made up of skeletons of this creature
as they were preserved in the rock, and in various living poses. ‘The
early evolution of the camels occurred in North America, and they did
not enter South America (llamas) or Asia until near the end of the Age
of Mammals.

The display of flesh-eating mammals or carnivores includes fossil
representatives of the various types of cats, including the saber-tooth
forms, and also the mustelids, bears, raccoons and dogs.

The rodents — squirrels, beavers, rats and mice, porcupines and
guinea pigs and a host of other living and extinct forms — are the most
successful and numerous of living mammals. The various types of fossil
rodents known from the Eocene and Oligocene periods indicate that
this group was subdivided into many evolutionary lines early in the Age
of Mammals. The rather squirrel-like Paramys was a typical early rodent.

FIFTH FOSSIL HALL — Ice Age Mammals

The Pleistocene, or Ice-age, is one of the most interesting geological
periods because it was during this comparatively short span of time that
most of the evolution of man took place. The animals which lived then,
Sharing with early man the rigors of a glacial climate, were the most
immediate ancestors of those we know today. In the Osborn Hall of the
Age of Man are displayed many of the animals which are known to have
been contemporaneous with early man. The murals on the walls, painted
by Charles R. Knight, show groups of Pleistocene mammals of North
and South America and Europe, and some of the early men associated
with them.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 7]

Among the most spectacular of Pleistocene animals were the mas-
todons and mammoths, relatives of the modern elephants, remains ot
which are widely distributed over the earth. The evolution of these
two distinct groups of the Proboscidea is shown here, beginning with the
most primitive mastodons, on the right as the hall is entered from the
elevators. ‘These, the moeritheres, found in Egypt, were the smallest
proboscideans, and had both upper and lower tusks and a short trunk
or proboscis. Specimens in succeeding cases, from many parts of the
world, show the gradual reduction of the lower tusks and number of
teeth, the shortening of the front of the skull as the trunk lengthened,
and the increase in size and bulk of the animal.

Three special exhibits, illustrated by skulls and jaws from the
magnificent collections of Mr. Childs Frick, show (1), three widely
different mastodon groups, based on the character of lower jaws and
incisors; (2), the remarkable variation and specialization of the lower
jaw symphysis and incisor within the so-called “longirostrine” group of
mastodons; and (3), a life reconstruction on one side of a fossil skull and
jaws of one of the longirostrines, Ocalientinus, showing the external
appearance of the animal’s head, cross-section of muscle and hide, and
the bone itself.

Three mounted skeletons represent various stages in the evolution
of the mastodon group: Trilophodon, from the lower Pliocene of Texas,
is considerably larger than the moeritheres, but retains primitive features
such as the elongated lower jaw and small lower tusks. Megabelodon,
another long-jawed Pliocene mastodon, is not an ancestor of either the
true mastodons or of the mammoths and elephants, but belongs to a
distinct group of proboscideans. ‘The skeleton which represents the
American mastodon is here called ““The Warren Mastodon,” because of
its interesting history. One of the most perfectly preserved fossil skeletons
ever found, it was collected in 1845 from shell-marl beds on a farm near
Newburgh, New York. After exhibition in New York and New England,

WOOLLY MAMMOTH. A herd of the woolly mammoths along the River Somme, France,
during the last glacial stage.

RESTORATION OF RANCHO LA BREA
TAR POOL SCENE. This painting in-
cludes the giant condor, saber-tooth
cat, giant ground sloth, and in the
distance, the Imperial Mammoth and
the dire wolf.

PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS. Skeletons of
the saber-tooth cat (left), dire wolf
(right) and giant sloth (foreground,
mostly submerged in tar) from the
Pleistocene tar pools of Rancho La

Brea, Los Angeles, California.

it was purchased by Dr. John Collins Warren, a professor of anatomy at
Harvard College, was mounted in 1846 and seen by thousands of visitors.
In 1849 it was remounted and placed on exhibition in the Warren
Museum in Boston, where it remained until 1906, when J. Pierpont
Morgan presented it, with the entire Warren Collection, to this museum.
In 1907 the skeleton was taken apart, cleaned and remounted as it stands
today. The American mastodon was the most abundant of the Pleistocene
proboscideans of North America, especially in the forested regions east
of the Mississippi.

The tall Columbian mammoth skeleton, with its great incurved tusks,
is a dramatic example of the group of true elephants which co-existed
with the mastodons in Pleistocene times. Mammoth skulls and jaws
from many parts of the world, and one of the largest known mammoth
tusks, over 16 feet in length, are exhibited here, with skulls of the living
Indian and African elephants for comparison. Many remains of Pleisto-
cene mammals have been discovered in the frozen ground of the far

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 73

north, often with flesh and hide well preserved. Examples of the dried
flesh, wool and hair of a woolly mammoth found in Alaska may be
seen here.

On the other side of the hall is a group showing how animals were
trapped in natural asphalt pools at the famous Rancho la Brea tar pits
in Los Angeles, California. Additional mounted skeletons of the saber-
tooth tiger and wolf are displayed nearby. Here also is the huge European
cave-bear, mounted in a standing attitude of attack. Pleistocene artio-
dactyls, or “even-toed” ungulates, include a series of skulls of various
kinds of wild catthe and a mounted skeleton of a bison from Folsom,
New Mexico, showing the association of arrow-points with bones of this
animal. The mounted skeleton of the Irish deer, Megaloceros, with its
wide antlers, is historically interesting in being the first mounted fossil
skeleton exhibited in this museum. In contrast to this, is the skeleton
of a pigmy hippopotamus which lived in Madagascar during Pleistocene
times.

A small group showing one way in which fossil bones are preserved
is the reproduction of part of the Conard Fissure locality in the Ozark
Hills of northern Arkansas. During Pleistocene times, a fissure, or open
crack caused by earth movements, was gradually filled with rocks, red
clay and stalactites. Imbedded in this are found the bones of animals
which inhabited the fissure, and of the prey they dragged into it. More
than 60 different species of mammals, birds and reptiles have been found,
mostly of a forest fauna such as bears, wild-cats, wolves, rodents, bats
and snakes.

MICROPALEONTOLOGY

Micropaleontology is that phase of general paleontology that deals
with very small animals and plants. The Department of Micropaleon-
tology is wholly a research department and has no exhibits except for
the models of Foraminifera displayed in the gailery of the Hall of
Ocean Life.

The work of the Department includes research on the literature of
the field, research on fossil material for clients, and independent work
on microfossils. Studies are also carried on to determine the relationship
of fossil and living forms to their past and present environments.

The results of these studies are largely contained in published
material distributed to subscribing members of the Department. Among
those subscribers are almost all of the larger universities and colleges,
other museums and research institutions, and all the major oil com-
panies of the world, whose principal output depends on a thorough
knowledge of the tiny creatures that help us to find oil deposits.

74 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

INVERTEBRATES

The exhibits include a number of habitat groups showing inverte-
brates in their natural surroundings and a synoptic series from the
simplest single-cell animals to the most complex invertebrates.

THE SYNOPTIC SERIES

Because of the small size and fragile nature of many invertebrates, a
large part of this exhibit consists of glass or wax models, often much
enlarged. These include the famous jewel-like creations of Herman
Mueller.

ONE-CELLED ANIMALS — Protozoa. These exhibits show the sim-
plest form of animal life. Although in some forms the animals assemble
into colonies, all are single-celled individuals. “These exhibits are mainly
models which represent protozoa enlarged hundreds of times.

SPONGES — Porifera. Sponges are made up of many cells but these
are comparatively loosely organized and do not form definite and distinct
tissues as in the higher animals. Sponges range in size from small incrus-
tations on stones and shells to the gigantic Neptune Goblets of Eastern
Seas.

STINGING ANIMALS — Coelenterates. These include the coral
animals and their relatives, the hydroids, jellyfish, sea anemones, sea
fans, sea plumes, stony corals and similar creatures. The stinging animals
have their cells organized into definite tissues but these do not form real
organ systems as in the higher forms.

COMB JELLIES — Ctenophora. While similar in appearance to the
stinging animals, these lack the stinging cells characteristic of the last
group. Although they do not have definite organ systems, their organiza-

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SETHOPHORMIS. This glass model shows the
silica skeleton of a typical Radiolaria.
These minute animals live in the deeper
water of the seas.

GLOBIGERINA. This is a minute sea anima
belonging to the group called Foraminifera
The needles are a floating device. The lime
shells of the dead animals fall to the ocear
bottom where they form, in certain areas
a muck called the Globigerina ooza. The
fossil shells of these animals as well as the
Radiolaria are important to the oil industry
because they are used to date the ages o
rocks.

CHAMBERED NAUTILUS. Cross section show-
ing chambers. The animal occupies the last
chamber.

tion is more complex than that of stinging animals. Transparent with
iridescent, vibrating, swimming hairs, in life they are often objects of
ereat beauty.

FLAT WORMS — Platyhelminthes. There are many important
parasitic species of flatworms, including the tapeworm, which are shown
in a series of models. ‘The enlarged wax models of free-living forms show
mostly species from the Mediterranean, but beautifully colored flatworms
are found in almost all seas; those living in fresh water are usually less
brilliant. All of the important organ systems of the higher animals are
present in these worms.

ROUNDWORMS — Nemathelminthes. ‘The parasitic roundworms are
very widespread; almost every other type of many-celled plants and
animals harbour one or more species of nematodes. Several serious
human diseases such as trichinosis and elephantiasis are caused by these
animals. Less well-known are the vast numbers of free-living nematodes
found nearly everywhere in the soil and in both fresh and salt water.

ROTIFERS — Rotifera. The minute wheel animals or rotifers in-
clude many exquisite or grotesque forms. A few are parasitic but most
are free-living. Most of them live in fresh water where they are very
widely distributed. In addition to the comparative series of models of
enlarged rotifers in the wall case at the southwest end of the gallery,
rotifers in their natural environment are shown in the Pond Life Group
at the other side of the Bahama Reef Group.

SPINY ANIMALS — Echinodermata. These include the sea stars,
brittle stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and sea lilies. In spite of their
entirely different appearance, many zoologists believe that this group
ef invertebrates is that which is most closely related to the chordates,
the group of animals to which man belongs. This conclusion is based
upon a study of the body chemistry and of the early stages in their life
history.

CHORDATES — Chordata. The phylum includes not only the verte-
brates but a number of small, relatively primitive and unfamiliar
animals as well. The three cases devoted to this phylum in the Gallery
of Living Invertebrates show the hemichordata and the ascidians. Ana-
tomical models of important members of these groups show the details of
their internal anatomy while other exhibits show the external appear-
ance of many other forms.

PROBOSCIS WORMS — Sipunculoidea and Echiuroidea. ‘These small
groups of worm-like animals have until recently been included either
in the segmented worms or combined into one group, the Gephyrea.
Their anatomical peculiarities are, however, sufficienty distinct to justify
considering them as separate groups. They are all marine and for the
most part live either in burrows or in natural fissures.

INVERTEBRATES 77

irogyra

This exhibit shows Sp
is the common pond weed, blad-

1,000,000 TIMES MAGNIFIED DROP OF POND WATER

In the center

bladders that trap small an

with its spiral band of chlorophyll.

derwart, which bears

A PORTION OF THE ROCK POOL GROUP. On the rocky northern New England Coast
are numerous basin-like crevices in the cliffs. At high tide, many of these are
fotally submerged, but as the water recedes they are left as stranded pools, richly
populated with marine animals and plants. In this group, sea-anemones are dis-
closed among the rockweed, sea-lettuce and kelp.

INVERTEBRATES 7F9

SEGMENTED WORMS — Annulata. As typified by the common
earthworm, these worms are made up of rings or segments. They include
many remarkable and beautiful marine worms as well as the more
familiar earthworms and leeches.

JOINT-LEGGED ANIMALS — Arthropoda. These include the crabs,
lobsters, insects, spiders and their relatives. The number of living species
in this group is greater than that of all the rest of the animal kingdom.
The lobster exhibited here is one of the largest ever taken. The largest
living arthropod is the Giant Japanese Spider Crab which is shown in
the case at the north end of the gallery.

MOLLUSKS — Mollusca. ‘The mollusca are next to the arthropods in
the diversity and number of forms. ‘They include clams, snails, slugs and
limpets as well as squids and octopuses. All these animals have soft
bodies but most of them secrete a hard exterior shell. ‘The wall cases at
the north end of the gallery contain a series of mollusk shells selected
to show the range of size and form in each of the superfamilies. In the
“A” case near the entrance to the hall are a group of large shells including
a paper nautilus which is believed to be the largest perfect specimen.

Upon entering the hall, a large model of the GIANT SQUID, Archi-
teuthis princeps is seen overhead. This model is based upon the studies
made by Professor Verrill on specimens stranded in Newfoundland
between 1872 and 1879. These large animals are attacked and eaten
by the sperm whales. A fight between these two monsters of the sea is
shown on the right in a mural painted by J. M. Guerry.

HABITAT GROUPS

On both sides of the hall at the far end of the gallery are displays
showing invertebrates in their natural habitats. THE SALT MARSH
GROUP is the first on the left. This group depicts the life in a salt
marsh at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, and is typical of such
marshes from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras.

THE SOUND BOTTOM GROUP represents a sandy bottom with
large granite boulders forming the reef known as the Devil's Bridge in
Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts. The lobster and blue crab are among
the animals shown.

THE WHARF PILE GROUP includes animals living in and among
the submerged piles of an old wharf at Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts.
The piles are covered with the flower-like colonies of sea anemones,
hydroids and other stationary animals.

THE POND LIFE GROUP displays a cubic half inch of pond bottom
enlarged one hundred diameters or cubically a million times, transform-
ing a minute area into a forest peopled by rotifers and other strange
creatures ordinarily invisible to the naked eye.

80 = INVERTEBRATES

A PORTION OF THE BAHAMIAN REEF GROUP. Coral is a colony of animals that secrete
a limey skeleton.

PEARL DIVERS GROUP. Tongareva Island. A great variety of coral is also repre-
sented in this group.

On the other side of the upper part of the Bahamian Reef Group a
companion exhibit to the Pond Life Group shows two square inches of
sea bottom enlarged to an area five feet square. Pieces of sea weed are
seen encrusted with colonies of Bryozoa composed of thousands of small
animals each of which has built a vase-like shell. Encrusting ascidians
and their tadpole-like young, a sea spider and flower-like sea worms are
among the other strange animals found here.

THE ROCK POOL GROUP contains the life which may be found in

rock pools along our shores north of Cape Cod. In the scene, the falling —
tide has left a pool in a rocky basin which shelters a community of sea —

anemones, sea stars and other invertebrates.

THE EELGRASS GROUP shows a portion of the bottom of the harbor
at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. In addition to the animals living on or
above the bottom, a cross-section of the bottom reveals animals which
burrow into the mud and sand.

THE BAHAMIAN REEF GROUP is seen at the farther end as you enter
the Hall of Ocean Life. The portion of the group above the gallery
shows the coral island and quiet lagoon. On the distant horizon the
low-lying Bahama Island of Andros is seen with its fringe of coconut
palms. Here the finest barrier reef in the West Indies parallels the shore.
The small island in the foreground below the gallery depicts the coral
forest as seen from the bottom of the sea. Many colorful inhabitants
of the reef are seen among the branches of the tree-like elkhorn coral
which rise to the water surface sixteen feet above.

THE PEARL DIVERS GROUP to the right of the Bahamian Reef Group

represents a scene on the ocean floor within the enclosed lagoon of the—
coral atoll, Tongareva. This small, ring-shaped island, eleven miles

in diameter, is in the South Pacific Ocean about 2000 miles south of
Honolulu. This group shows the marked contrast between the bril-
liantly colored delicate ponds and finely divided clusters of coral found
in the Pacific reef and the weird, branching species of the Atlantic
exhibited in the adjoining Bahamian Reef Group.

82 INVERTEBRATES

INSESTS AND SPIDERS

Insects and spiders play a very important part in man’s every day
life, a part which is too often ignored or about which too little is under-
stood by the general public. About 80°, of the total number of species
in the Animal Kingdom belong in the phylum Arthropoda which in-
cludes insects and spiders. At the present time approximately 850,000
species of insects and spiders have been described, and it is probable
that there exists the almost unbelievable number of 9,000,000 additional
species. Many insects and spiders have no direct bearing on man’s
economy or interests although they may be very important in maintain-
ing a balance in nature. Because of this large number of species, it 1s,
therefore, impossible to display examples of each.

In the Insect and Spider Hall, which is the largest and most complete
exhibit of its kind in this country, examples of some of the more interest-
ing species, and ecological and biological phenomena are presented.
Beneficial and destructive insects are displayed, along with beautiful and
bizarre insects from all over the world. These exhibits have been accom-
plished through the efforts of the research staff of the Department of
Insects and Spiders, which is constantly studying many phases of insect
and spider life. Problems in biology and ecology are always attracting
the staff to work afield in manv areas in this country and abroad where
large and important collections are made.

Much of the work carried on in the laboratories at the Museum has
to do with the classification or naming of the various species. The
importance and necessity of this research work to the public arises from
the fact that each year we receive thousands of requests for identifications
of insects and spiders that have come to the public’s attention. We are

constantly being asked to name a particular insect and to state whether
or not it is dangerous, if it will destroy household furnishings, the home,
personal belongings, or if it will affect the health of individuals coming
in contact with it.

‘The visitor’s interest in the Insect and Spider Hall will be affected
by his own personal experience. ‘The suburban dweller will perhaps
be more interested in those insects affecting garden or ornamental plants, —
whereas the apartment house dweller who has no garden will probably
be more interested in household insects. Exhibits of insects of interest
to both groups are to be found in the Insect and Spider Hall.

Through the ages and even before the time of civilization, man has
struggled with the insects for his existence. At the same time many
insects contribute beneficially in supplying man with various commodities
and many predaceous and parasitic species have aided in the control of
destructive insects. “The ways in which insects are beneficial to man are
many and varied. Among these we might mention the silk worm in
relation to true silk of commerce. Beeswax and honey are products of
the honeybee which have long been used by man. Shellac is a secretion
ot a scale insect of India. ‘The cochineal scale insect is used as a dye for
artificial coloring of foods, drinks and cosmetics. A number of extracts
of medicinal value have been made from the bodies of insects, and
spider silk is employed in the manufacture of certain optical instruments.
These are but a few of the examples of direct usage of insects. Probably
the most important benefit derived from them is in their pollinizing of ©
various fruits, seeds and vegetables which form a large portion of man’s
diet. Most of the animals used by man for his meat are dependent upon
plants which would not exist if this pollinization were to cease. Even
many of the fish products utilized by man would disappear were it not
for the fact that aquatic insects are available as food for the fish. Many
of our game birds are dependent almost entirely, or at least in large
part, on insects for their food. In many parts of the world, from ancient
times to the present day, insects have been eaten by human beings.
Among these we might mention grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, cater-
pillars of moths and butterflies, termites and aquatic flies and bugs.
Insects have also been used extensively in scientific research on genetics,
physiology, psychology and sociology.

The ways in which insects are injurious to man are many and often
of a critical nature. They injure or kill all kinds of crops, forest trees
and valuable plants by chewing the foliage, sucking the sap, boring or
tunneling into roots, stems or leaves, by carrying organisms such as
fungi, bacteria, or protozoa which then attack the plant. It has been
estimated that the direct annual agricultural losses occasioned by insects
in the United States are about $2,000,000,000. They attack and annoy or
kill living animals. Many species such as flies do direct damage by feeding
on living tissue, others carry parasites of various diseases, some serve as
intermediate hosts for organisms pathogenic to man and still others are
venomous and are capable of causing bodily injury.

84 INSECTS AND SPIDERS

The species most commonly observed by the public are those which
attack stored food products, clothing, books, furniture and buildings.
‘Termites are among the most destructive in this group but such insects
as powder post beetles and cigarette beetles do considerable damage to
furnishings. The clothes moths and the carpet beetles do millions ol
dollars in damage annually to clothing and similar materials. “Ihe meal
worms are often found in packaged cereals and other prepared grain
foods and make such products unfit for human consumption. ‘To this
group can be added a host of species which attack field crops and upon
which we are constantly required to apply expensive control measures.
Among these pests we might mention the Colorado potato beetle, the
Mexican bean beetle, the cotton boll weevil and the corn ear worm.
No part of a plant is immune to insect attack. The immature stages of
many species feed on the roots, whereas both immature and adult insects
attack the leaves, stems, fruits and flowers.

Some of the greatest scourges in the history of mankind have been
transmitted by insects. Black Death or Plague, which is transmitted by a
flea, has claimed millions of lives since the sixth century and continues to
be a constant menace to modern society. Yellow fever transmitted by
the mosquito has at times made portions of the world uninhabitable
and nearly prevented the construction of the Panama Canal. Malaria,
also transmitted by the mosquito, has been and is an important disease of
man. It is widely distributed throughout the world and during the
recent war a considerable number of men had to be employed in the
control and prevention of this disease. “yphus, transmitted by the body
louse, has always been a major problem in congested areas and many
thousands of people in many parts of the world suffer from its depreda-
tions. Ticks and mites, which are not insects but are related, carry a
number of diseases which are of great importance. Rocky Mountain
spotted fever which has claimed the lives of many people is carried by a
tick. A number of species of mites are responsible for mange and almost
everyone has come in contact with the red mites which make life
miserable over extensive areas in the New World.

From the above account the reader will be impressed by the fact that
very few organisms or habitats on the earth’s surface are not frequented
by insects. Indeed they have been more successful in adapting them-

THE HUMAN FLEA
(Pulex irritans),
relatives of which
are responsible for
the transmission of
Bubonic Plague.

selves to life on this world of ours than any other organism. Proof of
this adaptability can be seen when one considers that insects came into
being some 300,000,000 years ago and have out-lived such animals as the

dinosaurs which might seem to have been better able to survive because
of their size and strength.

THE EXHIBITS

The Museum visitor often wonders about the relationships between
various groups of organisms. The Animal Kingdom is divided into a
number of very large groups called Phyla. The insects, spiders and
mites belong to the phylum Arthropoda. This phylum contains a number
of classes including the Arachnida, or spiders and mites, and Insecta, or
insects. In other words, the two groups belong to the same phylum but
to two different classes within the phylum. The Insect and Spider Hall,
therefore, covers members of two classes belonging to the phylum
Arthropoda. Exhibits showing other classes in this phylum are pre-_
sented in other halls in the Museum.

Because of the irregular architecture of the Insect and Spider Hall
and the difhculty often experienced in locating particular exhibits, a
map is presented to show the more important subjects and groups pre-
sented. It should be remembered, however, that there are many exhibits
not indicated on the map and also that the cases are not numbered
according to the map numbers. The numbers are referred to in the
following text and the placement on the map is in the approximate
location in the hall. Case | is to the left of the entrance from the Hall of
Reptiles and Amphibia while Case 17 is to the left of the entrance coming
from the Hall of Biology of Mammals.

DIAGRAM OF THE HALL OF
INSECT AND SPIDER LIFE
showing the location of some
of the more important and
interesting exhibits

referred to in the text.

BENEFICIAL INSECTS. Many insects and insect products have been
and are utilized directly or indirectly by man. In Case 9 examples of the
swarming of honeybees as well as the various types of cells contained
in the hives are presented. Illustrations of the worker and queen and
drone bees are also shown. Included in this exhibit is an example of the
bee moth whose larva feeds at night on the wax of the combs.

Many different kinds of insects are used for fish bait and others are
used as models for the construction of fishermen’s “flies.” Case 24 con-
tains a series of models showing how to tie a fly, together with models of
well-known commercial flies now in use. Examples of both American
and English fishing flies are shown.

In Case 2 various examples of fruits, vegetables and other products
whose development is dependent upon insects for pollination are
presented.

A very extensive exhibit on the progressive stages in silk culture is
shown in wall cases. This traces the development from the larval stage
of the silk moth through the various stages in the manufacture of silk to
the finished product. Examples of the adult silk moths and related moths
with their pupal cases are also given.

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. On the south side of the hall in a
number of cases are a series of exhibits showing insects that attack
various types of plants and food products that are of value to man. Actual
specimens and examples of types of injury are included. Such household
pests as clothes moths, carpet beetles, cockroaches, house ants and bed-
bugs are presented either as actual specimens, or, where the insects are
very small, as enlarged models or illustrations. Pests of stored food
products including the flour moths, meal worms and tobacco beetles are
to be found in these groups. Other insects attacking cotton, truck crops,
fruits, woody plants, shade trees, nut trees and coniferous plants are to
be found in this series.

One of the most destructive and most commonly encountered of the
household insects is the termite. In Case 25 the visitor will find enlarged
models showing the differences between the termite and the ant and in
Case 4 a diagrammatic chart of the life history of the termite. Also in
this case the visitor will find a series of enlarged models showing the
various castes in the termite’s social organization.

INSECTS AND ART. In Cases 10 and 11 are examples of art work
in which insects are employed as subjects, or in which actual insect
specimens or portions of their bodies are used in various types of orna-
mentation. Examples of such work from Asia, Central and South
America are presented.

INSECT BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY. The life history, habits of
ants and their relation with other insects are presented by a series of
illustrations and photographs in Case 3.

In Case 12, by means of colored illustrations and actual specimens,
the growth and development of the Io moth is shown. Also in this case
the visitor will find the immature stages and adults of the 17-year locust.

INSECTS AND SPIDERS 87

SS +

4
5

MODEL OF MOLE CRICKET (enlarged five diameters). An insect with forelegs
especially adapted for digging.

Case 13 is a habitat group in which the Mole Cricket is shown in its
natural environment in the ground.

Similarly in Case 14 a dragonfly nymph is shown in the act of catching
a mosquito larva. Both of these exhibits depict the insects enlarged five
times natural size.

Habitat group No. 21 shows a portion of a colony of Army ants with
raiders bringing back insects they have captured and killed.

Case 22 is a similar exhibit showing leaf-cutting ants on branches,
entering the nests, carrying the pieces of leaves that they have cut. These
pieces of leaves are not eaten but are used in growing a special kind of
fungus that is eaten as food.

Habitat group No. 23 shows a nest of the stingless bees with the
entrance extending from a cavity in a tree. These bees are unable to
sting and the honey of some species is pleasant to the human taste and
is utilized by the inhabitants of many tropical countries.

An example of beetles in hibernation is presented in Case 20, show-
ing the massing of Lady Bird beetles in a mountainous area.

The abundance of, and destruction caused by, the Japanese beetle is
illustrated in Case 19.

INSECT AND SPIDER ARCHITECTURE. Case 5, although in-
complete, contains a number of examples of the different types of nests
constructed by various species of tropical wasps.

Various types of ant nests are shown in Case 3.

In wall case No. 1 are models showing the processes in the weaving
of the spider web. Pictures of actual webs, with colored illustrations of
the spiders, are also to be found in this group.

88 INSECTS AND SPIDERS

a nD —

ip.

t its t

incers a

ito larva by means of its curiously modified

lower lip which is segmented and has a pair of p

POEL
aaemeene

TROPICAL WASP NEST with side cut away to show the internal architecture.

DRAGON-FLY NYMPH catching a mosqu

A GATHERING OF MONARCH BUTTERFLIES.
In early autumn, the Monarch Butterfly
(Danaus plexippus) assembles in great
swarms in various sections of the United
States. At nightfall, large numbers crowd
onto the leaves and branches of trees and
shrubs. These swarms move southward for
the winter much as birds migrate. The
females come north the next spring and
re-establish the northern population.

BEAUTY IN THE INSECT WORLD. There is probably no group
of organisms on the earth’s surface in which can be found the combina-
tion, variety and brilliance of colors shown by insects. Case 15 presents
many of the more beautiful butterflies and moths from various sections
of the world. These are arranged around maps in which the areas of
distribution represented by the moths and butterflies are variously
colored.

Additional examples of many species of beautiful butterflies and
moths from many parts of the world can be found in the cases surround-
ing the whale in the Hall of Biology of Mammals which is to the west
of the Insect and Spider Hall.

ODDITIES IN INSECTS. A series of enlarged models in Case 16
illustrates the peculiar structures in the treehoppers and a series of models
shows the complete life cycle of a local species.

In Case 17 the visitor can see actual specimens of insects showing the
differences between the males and females of various species of beetles,
moths and butterflies. Actual examples are also presented showing
various types of special adaptation including the very long ovipositors in
some wasps, the very long mouthparts in moths and the extensive wing
development in the dragonfly which makes possible its very rapid flight.
The phenomenon of variation is illustrated by actual examples in three
species of insects.

Insects that mimic their environment are displayed in Case 18. Pro-
tective coloration as shown in some of the moths is presented, showing

90 /NSECTS AND SPIDERS

THE BODY LOUSE
(Pediculus humanus corporis),
the carrier of Typhus fever.

these insects in a portion of their actual environment. ‘This exhibit also
includes species that resemble dead twigs or leaves and others that look
like fungus growths on tree trunks. A number of examples ol mimicry —
instances in ae insects, commonly eaten by other organisms, resemble
species that are not eaten and are probably distasteful — are presented.
This case also includes a series of bizarre species. An example of a walk-
ing stick, one of the longest of all insects known, is on display with its
wings extended. Various types of leg, antennal and mouthpart develop-
ments in beetles are shown by actual specimens.

INSECTS AND DISEASES OF MAN. It has been estimated that the
annual vital loss to man and his domestic animals attributed to insects

diseases carried by insects is about $781,450,000. One of the most
important diseases in the Western Hemisphere is malaria carried by
the mosquito shown in exhibit No. 6. Shown are enlarged models of the
ege, the egg raft, the larvae, the pupae and the adult and also a cross-
section showing the internal anatomy of the adult. Descriptions of the
various stages and comparisons with other species are given on the labels
and by means of various diagrams.

Another disease that has been the scourge of mankind is yellow fever
and the mosquito that is responsible for its transmission is shown in
Case 7.

Typhus is a very important disease in congested areas and during

HOUSE-FLY (Musca domestica) showing four stages in its life cycle: eggs, larva, pupa
and adult. This insect is responsible for the transmission of typhoid fever and

filth diseases.

em “SS...

war time, and is transmitted by the body louse which is exhibited as an
enlarged model in Case 7. ‘The carrier of Plague or Black Death, a flea,
is also presented as a model in this same group. Everyone has come into
contact at one time or another with the common house-fly. This insect,
although primarily a food contaminator, is also a carrier of filth diseases
and typhoid fever. Enlarged models in Case 7 show the eggs, larva,
pupa and adult. Most of the models shown in Cases 6 and 7 are
enlarged 74 diameters or 400,000 times the volume of the actual specimens.

Case 8 contains actual specimens and enlarged colored paintings of
the tick which carries Rocky Mountain spotted fever, a bug that carries
Chagas disease, and the flies that are responsible for African sleeping
sickness, Tularaemia and Filariasis.

On the first floor Roosevelt entrance, in the section dealing with New
York State exhibits, the visitor will find on the south wall in the corridor
some examples of the butterflies and moths of New York State. ‘These
are actual specimens and beneath each is the correct name. Several of
the species also have their immature stages illustrated in color. The
viewer should remember that this is not a complete collection of the
butterflies and moths of New York State although most of the common
species are represented.

It is hoped that those individuals who have occasion to visit the
insect and spider exhibits will find them stimulating and that they will
be encouraged to make their own observations. Insects and spiders are
so abundant in nature that it is not difficult for the average individual
to find many interesting problems within his immediate surroundings.
Many important cbservations on insect behavior and biology have yet
to be made and important discoveries can be forthcoming from the
careful amateur observer. We hope the insect hall serves as an intro-
duction to many of the interesting phases of insect and spider life.

92 INSECTS AND SPIDERS

FISHES

From earliest times, man has taken much of his food from the waters
of the earth. The oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams abound
in fishes and man has discovered many ingenious ways to catch them by
hook, arrow, spear, net, trap and drug.

Today, we are still fishermen in the world’s waters. Much of our food
is taken from both salt and fresh water. We depend on fish for many raw
materials as well. Much oil, fertilizer, medicine and leather are obtained
from fishing. Millions of people fish for a living and millions more fish
for sport and relaxation.

The scientist looks at fishes from a different viewpoint. He studies
their physical structure, classifies them as to species, and finds out as
much as he can about their distribution, migrations, feeding, choice of
bottom, abundance, size and growth. Such information is of great value
to other scientists, and at the same time is sought by educators, fisher-
men, industry and the general public.

THE EXHIBITS
On entering the Hall of Fishes from the Hall of North American
Forests, one faces a group of sharks sweeping down upon a helpless
logger-head turtle. The following sharks are represented in this group:

(1) WHITE SHARK or MAN-EATER. One of the largest sharks,
growing to a length of 30 feet or more. This ferocious shark feeds on
large fish and sea-turtles. It has been known to attack men and even small
boats. Fortunately, it is apparently rare everywhere.

THE SEA ROVERS. An undersea scene showing a number of sharks attacking a sea
turtle.

MAKO SHARK GROUP.

SKELETON OF A SWORDFISH.

(2) SPOT-FIN GROUND SHARK OR SHOVELNOSE. May be
recognized by its small second dorsal fin and very long tapering pectorais,
in combination with a flattened, shovel-like nose. It produces living
young, feeds chiefly on fishes and squid, and is harmless to man.

(3) SOUTHERN GROUND SHARK. Somewhat resembles the Tiger
Shark but differs in its very blunt snout, stouter body, very large pectoral
fins and complete absence of spots. It lives in coastal waters and feeds
on fishes. It is common about wharves, where it picks up refuse. It is
not dangerous to man.

(4) TIGER SHARK. This fish sometimes reaches a length of 30 feet
and is a very active predatory shark. It has wide jaws and powerful
sickle-shaped teeth. It preys on large sea-turtles, other sharks, fishes and
invertebrates. The Tiger Shark is much dreaded in the West Indies, but
there are no authentic records of attacks on humans.

(5) HAMMER-HEAD SHARK. This shark is characterized by a gro-
tesque elongation of its eye stalks. It occasionally reaches a length of
12 feet.

(6) SAND SHARK. This shark lives chiefly on small fishes which it
captures in great numbers.

THE SYSTEMATIC EXHIBIT includes a representative series of fishes,
from the lowly “cartilege fishes,” such as the sharks and rays, to the
highest or most complexly constructed bony fishes. Noteworthy in this
series are the mounted groups of “‘ganoids,’ including the sturgeons,
spoonbills, bony gars and bowfins. In the alcoves and wall cases to the
right, the visitor finds many curious forms, such as the giant catfishes,
the handsome rooster fish, the brilliant parrot fish and butterfly fishes.

FISHES 95

On the left side of the SEA ROVERS group is the BIOLOGICAL

EXHIBIT. This considers the fish as a machine — its streamlined form,
its main principles of construction, its machinery for motion, and the
mechanism of its jaws.
BIG GAME FISHES. At the end of the Fish Hall, toward the Roosevelt
Memorial, is the exhibit of Big Game Fishes, including many of great
size taken with rod and line, chiefly by Michael Lerner and Zane Grey.
The huge ocean sunfish, taken by Mr. Grey, weighed nearly a ton.

‘The central feature of the SAILFISH GROUP is the mounted skin
of a fish caught off the rocky coast of Cape San Lucas, Lower California.
It is shown in the act of leaping from the water in a desperate effort to
shake the hook from its jaws.

Many other fishes well known to anglers and sportsmen hang in these
cases, such as salmon, trout, perch, muskellunge, barracuda, yellowjack,
bonefish, and the like.

Three fine specimens of the fishes caught and presented by Michael
Lerner are exhibited in special cases as if rising through the water. One
is the mounted skin of a tuna (Thunnus thynnus) which measured 8
feet, 3 inches in length and weighed 557 pounds. It was caught on rod
and reel off Wedgeport, Nova Scotia. This is the common or BLUEFIN
TUNA, also called ‘Tunny and Horse Mackerel. It occurs in both the
Atlantic and the Pacific, and huge specimens may reach a weight of
over 1,000 pounds.

The second specimen, a BLUE MARLIN (Makaira nigricans ampla),
weighed 305 pounds and measured 10 feet in length. It was caught on
rod and reel off Bimini, Bahamas. A MAKO SHARK (Jsurus oxyrhyn-
chus), also caught off Bimini, is shown lunging above the surface of the
water to catch an escaping albacore.

The tuna, the swordfish, the marlin, the sailfish and the mackerel
are all related, belonging to the same suborder of fishes, the Scom-
broidei, a group which reaches the acme of streamlined form and speed.

On the right of the exit from the Fish Hall is a large exhibit, THE
LIFE HISTORY OF THE SWORDFISH, tracing the development of
the swordfish from a tiny egg to the adult.

96 sSFISHES

AMPHIBIANS
AND REPTILES

The branch of biology that deals with the amphibians and reptiles
is known as herpetology. In its broadest sense herpetology is concerned
with the origin, evolution, distribution and classification of the amphib-
ians and reptiles, their relationships to their environment, their life
histories, their habits and behavior, and their structures and their func-
tions. Herpetology is also concerned with the economic importance of
amphibians and reptiles, and their bearing on the activities of man.
The study of extinct amphibians and reptiles is more often included
under paleontology.

Amphibians are backboned animals with a moist glandular skin.
If scales are present they are usually hidden in the skin, and amphibians
lack the protective covering of feathers or hair seen in higher vertebrates.
The eggs of amphibians are usually laid in water or at least in moist
places, and most of them pass through a fish-like, water-dwelling stage
before metamorphosing or changing to the adult form. There are three
major groups of living Amphibia: (1) the caecilians (Apoda), super-
ficially worm-like, limbless creatures, include burrowing as well as
water-dwelling forms living in the tropics; (2) the salamanders (Urodela)
or tailed amphibians, usually with four limbs, are largely confined to the
northern hemisphere; (3) the frogs (Anura), many of them popularly
called “toads,” are the tailless amphibians, otherwise characterized by
their relatively long hind limbs and their hopping or leaping mode of
progression. The three groups of Amphibia comprise a total of approxi-
mately 2500 living species.

Amphibians were derived from lobe-finned fish ancestors well over
three hundred million years ago. Some fifty million years later one
amphibian stock gave rise to the reptiles. Thus the amphibians are
classed above the fishes, but below the reptiles.

Reptiles are backboned animals with dry, scale-covered skins. Some
reptiles give birth to their young, but most of them lay eggs, always on
land. Upon emergence from the egg, the reptile is similar to its parents
and equipped to obtain oxygen from the air. The major groups of
reptiles include: (1) the turtles (Testudinata); (2) the alligators and
crocodiles (Crocodilia); (3) the “beak-heads” (Rhynchocephalia) repre-
sented by a single species, the relict Tuatara, Sphaenodon punctatum, of
New Zealand; and (4) the lizards and snakes (Squamata), respectively
included as subgroups of a single order owing to the existence of snake-
like characters in several lizards and the retention of limb-girdles in
some snakes.

Approximately 7000 kinds (species) of reptiles are still in existence,
and many more passed into oblivion or are known only from their fos-
silized remains. The reptiles flourished at an early period of their
evolution, which began well over two hundred million years ago. The
original stock gave rise to such gigantic forms as some of the dinosaurs.
Other stocks led independently to the warm-blooded mammals and birds.
But several other stocks, including the larger “ruling reptiles,” failed
to survive. The modern reptiles include few species of great size; some
marine turtles may reach a ton in weight and crocodiles 24 feet in length
may weigh even more. The largest surviving lizard is scarcely ten feet
long, but some snakes are believed to exceed thirty feet.

Unlike the birds and mammals, which produce heat internally, the
amphibians and reptiles depend largely upon sources of heat outside
the body. Some birds migrate to warmer climates in winter but others
can remain abroad throughout the year, even in colder climates. Sim-
ilarly, some mammals are continuously active, although others are forced
to retire underground to avoid extremes of heat or cold. In this respect
they are not unlike the reptiles, from which they differ in being heated”
internally while they are active.

One of the major research projects of the Department of Amphibians
and Reptiles is concerned with the regulation of the body temperature
in amphibians and reptiles. Investigations have disclosed the fact that
many reptiles can maintain relatively high as well as fairly constant
temperatures while they are abroad and active. They bask or seek out
warm ground to raise the body temperature. When they become too hot
they retire to shade or to shelter underground where their heat can be
dissipated. Despite the fact that reptiles depend upon heat derived
directly from the sun or from their surroundings, many species maintain
body temperatures higher than those of man and other mammals. Thus,
while reptiles are commonly termed “cold-blooded,” it has become
apparent that, when active, many reptiles are quite as warm as their
more advanced relatives, the birds and mammals.

It is of fundamental importance, however, that the internal heating
mechanism of birds and most mammals provides them with greater
freedom in their activities than the amphibians and the reptiles possess.
Nevertheless, it seems manifest that many elements of the highly com-
plicated mechanism of heat production in the mammals had their origin

—————————

in the reptiles. The same portion of the brain that is sensitive to tem-
perature changes in mammals is also heat sensitive in reptiles. “Thus,
by studying the origin and evolution of the mechanism of heat regula-
tion in reptiles and the more primitive mammals, it is possible to im-
prove our understanding of heat regulation in man, a matter of medical
importance.

The Department of Amphibians and Reptiles has also carried out
research projects concerned with the venom and the venom apparatus ol
cobras, their distributions and relationships, matters of particular im-
portance in dealing with problems of snake bite and the therapeutic
uses of venom. Similarly the Department has conducted a thorough
investigation of the one family comprised of venomous lizards, the Gila
monster of the United States and its Mexican allies.

Other studies by the scientific staff include those made of snake
locomotion, of methods of eradicating venomous snakes, of the sense
organs employed by snakes in their recognition of enemies, of tooth and
fang replacement in reptiles, of homing behavior in toads, and of
moisture loss in relation to habitat selection in reptiles. Many investiga-
tions have dealt with the classification of individual groups of reptiles
and amphibians, or with the faunas of individual areas. Few of these
projects yield results of direct economic significance. Many of them are
much more concerned with the elucidation of evolutionary or distribu-
tional principles. It is of value to learn how and where amphibians or
reptiles live, how they reproduce, or how they are affected by their
environment, but not only because this information is intrinsically
interesting. Largely it is a matter of extending the scope of human
knowledge and in part it is a matter of satisfying man’s curiosity con-
cerning the unknown. For a thorough understanding of our world
depends upon the assemblage and interpretation of precise information
concerning all living things that surround us, and that constitute our
environment in its broadest sense. And only by disregarding immediate
utility in our assemblage of information is the widest utility to be served
in the end.

THE EXHIBITS

The exhibits in the Hall of Living Reptiles depict representatives
of all the important groups of amphibians and reptiles now surviving.
As a means of furthering the scientific study of amphibians and reptiles,
the Museum maintains one of the largest collections in existence. It
comprises approximately 150,000 specimens and a large percentage of
the species. However, scarcely 700 specimens have been used in exhibits,
which display nearly 400 species, or only one out of each twenty-four that
are known to science. For the individual specimens on display have been
carefully selected to illustrate some peculiarity, to show some interesting
attribute of the species or to illustrate a biological principle.

Upon coming into the hall from the Insect Hall to the south, the
exhibits one first sees are the floor cases. These display many of the
larger reptiles, the relatively gigantic crocodilians, the large land-

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 99

dwelling tortoises, and fresh water turtles, and the venomous snakes of
maximum-sized species, including the king cobra, longest of all venomous
snakes, the two largest kinds of the rattlesnakes, and the larger of the
two species of venomous lizards. Interspersed with these are smaller
habitat groups showing one of the large monitor lizards, an inhabitant
of the regions occupied by the Asiatic cobra and Russell’s viper. Other
floor groups depict the timber rattlesnake and the copperhead, the two
snakes most often responsible for injuries from snake bite in the eastern
portion of the United States.

At the right of the entrance leading from the Insect Hall is the splen-
did group depicting the “dragon lizards of Komodo,” the largest of living
lizards, with a maximum length approaching ten feet. ‘These great
lizards, with a range confined to the East Indian Islands of Komodo,
Padar, Rintja and Flores, are members of the monitor family (Varanidae).
This group of lizards is no longer represented in North America where
jt existed in prehistoric times, but it is now widely distributed in Africa,
Asia and the Australian region. The exhibit shows the giant monitor in
its native habitat on Komodo Island, where these lizards were collected
and studied by the William Douglas Burden Expedition. The lizards
were attracted by the carcasses of wild hogs, and the scene depicts a
gigantic male ripping the meat from the dead animal as another lizard
swallows a great chunk of meat already torn loose. A third lizard

DRAGON LIZARDS OF KOMODO. (Varanus komodoensis). A male dragon lizard
emerges from the dense jungle in search of food, using his long forked tongue like
that of a snake to detect odoriferous particles in the air. This he does by inserting
the tips of the tongue into a “pocket” of nerve endings in the roof of the mouth.
A second smaller specimen crouches in a den that it has dug under the roots of a
tree. This species, the largest lizard, is still in existence on the islands of Komodo,
Padar, Rintja and Flores in the East Indies.

MADAGASCAR CHAMAELEON. Among lizards, only the chamaeleon projects its
extremley long tongue with great rapidity and accuracy to ensnare its insect prey
at a distance that may exceed the length of its body. As in the frogs, the end of
the tongue is sticky so that the insect is drawn back into the mouth with the tongue.

emerges from the dense undergrowth, its huge tongue thrust out as it
picks up odorous particles that are carried to organs of smell in the
palate, thus helping the reptile to find its food.

These huge lizards inhabit a region where there were no large car-
nivorous cats, wolves or similar mammals until dogs were introduced
by man. Free from competition with such animals, the giant lizards
became predators on the small deer, wild pigs and birds of the region,
assuming the role ordinarily filled by the meat-eating mammals. The
failure of the larger carnivorous mammals to reach Komodo and the
adjacent islands therefore accounts for the survival of the largest lizard
in these tiny islands where it remained undiscovered until 1912.

There is a vast amount of popular misinformation concerning snakes
that is essentially folklore. Many erroneous notions are widely believed
by otherwise well-informed people. Snake yarns, many of them dating
back at least to Aristotle, are commonly accepted even though they
endow the snake with capacities bordering on the supernatural. Thus
an exhibit that contrasts the snakes of folklore with snakes as they actu-
ally exist seeks to correct these mistaken beliefs. This exhibit, labelled
“SNAKES OF FABLE AND FACT,” lies to the left of the entrance.
Beyond this, along the left wall, the first of a series of exhibits in sunken
panels illustrates the basic differences between amphibians and reptiles.
what these animals are and why there are reasons for the belief that
snakes were derived from ancestral lizard stock.

:
AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 101

Continuing along the wall, this series of exhibits illustrates such
biological principles as ADAPTATION, NATURAL SELECTION,
ADAPTIVE RADIATION, ISOLATION and its evolutionary signif-
icance in the development of differences in form or habitat preference,
the phenomena of PARALLEL EVOLUTION, and the selective im-
portance of PARENTAL CARE, and of ATTRACTING or FRIGHT-
ENING DEVICES. Another exhibit along the same wall explains the-
nature of the venom apparatus and the methods used in treating snake
bite.

The corridor enclosed by the wall containing the sunken panels
provides access to a series of habitat groups. These portray American
reptiles and amphibians engaged in their normal activities under natural
conditions. The subjects in their order from the front of the corridor
are: the LEATHERBACK TURTLE; the GIANT SALAMANDER
or Hellbender; the BULLFROG: a NEW ENGLAND MARSHLAND
IN SPRING; WEST INDIAN TREE FROGS; REPTILES OF TH
SOUTHWEST; the GALAPAGOS IGUANA; the RHINOCEROS

SURINAM TOAD. The female Surinam Toad (Pipa pipa) of northern South America
carries her eggs in shallow pockets on the back until they hatch as fully formed
froglets. After being fertilized internally, the female deposits eggs by extruding
the cloaca over her back. The male, perched on her back, presses the eggs into
the female’s back; each egg separately sinks into a pocket that forms to receive it.

RHINOCEROS IGUANA. The Rhinoceros Iguana (Cyclura cornuta), the most powerful
lizard in the Americas, inhabits the deserts of the West Indian Island of Hispaniola.
The males shown here are fighting over territory that one of them is defending
against the other as he will against all intruding males of the same species. The
male on the left is undergoing his periodical shedding as evidenced by the patch
of skin that is coming off his body.

IGUANA; and the GILA MONSTER. At the end of the corridor lies
the FLORIDA CYPRESS SWAMP group.

Each of these groups emphasizes some noteworthy amphibian or rep-
tile and its activities. The leatherback is the largest turtle in existence,
with a maximum weight approaching a ton, and a wide distribution in
the oceans of the world. The giant salamander, more or less strictly a
stream dweller, is not the longest but probably the bulkiest amphibian
in North America. It is one of the more primitive tailed amphibians,
fish-like in some features of its reproduction. It is shown with its
enormous eggs, laid in long bead-like strings. From his vent the male
emits a cloudy substance containing the male germ cells, which fertilizes
the large eggs that he remains on hand to guard.

In contrast, the bullfrog in the adjacent habitat group lays its eggs
in clumps on the surface of pools. It is not so securely tied to the water,

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 103

for it preys upon a great variety of smaller animals on land as well as
in the pools. The breeding activities of frogs are exemplified in the
New England marshland exhibit, which shows male frogs and toads
calling to attract mates whose eggs will be laid and fertilized in the
adjacent water. Next in order is the diorama showing the activities of
tree frogs, and the small lizards called geckos as they would be observed
by a naturalist abroad with his flashlight during the night on a West
Indian island.

Reptiles, particularly the iguanas and their relatives in the New
World, thrive in arid regions. The deserts of the southwestern portions
of the United States extend into the peninsula of Baja California where
such bizarre reptiles as the horned lizards share their habitat with the
much larger herbivorous chuckawallas. Relatives of these desert dwellers
have also reached many of the islands off the coast of the Americas. In
the Galapagos Islands, off the coast of Ecuador, there are two large
iguanas. One is confined to the land, but the other, the marine iguana
more abundantly represented in the next group, lives on the rocky shores
of these volcanic islands. Unlike any other lizard, it swims offshore to
feed on marine plants.

Quite unlike this marine iguana, the rhinoceros iguana of the West
Indian island of Santo Domingo inhabits the extremely arid portions of
the island. The group illustrates the life history of the lizard, which
is sufficiently powerful to dig its own burrows in the hard fossiliferous
limestone. The eggs, buried in the sand, are deposited in July. When
they hatch, the young iguanas push their way to the surface, sometimes
carrying portions of the egg shell with them.

Near the end of the corridor is the Gila monster group, showing the
only venomous lizard in the United States in its desert surroundings.
The desert tortoise and the Sonoran whipsnake, other reptiles inhabiting
the same region, are not molested by the Gila monster although their
eges, as well as those of lizards, are dug from the earth and eaten. The
Gila monster also devours the eggs of birds and their nestlings, and not
infrequently preys on juvenile ground squirrels, and sometimes eats
smaller lizards.

Exhibits outside the corridor at the end of the hall illustrate how
species arise as the result of isolation on mountain tops. To the right
of the exit are two groups illustrating various ways that reptiles deposit
their eggs. A diagram in between explains the significant advances in
reproduction represented by the reptile egg, which contains a large
amount of yolk and is similar in many respects to that of the birds and
the egg-laying mammals. ‘The reptile egg allows the developing embryo
to obtain its oxygen directly from the air. Moreover, it contains other
structures that eliminate the need for water so that reptiles are not
so restricted in their habitats as their amphibian ancestors must have
been.

On the outer side of the hall there are series of reptile skeletons
exemplifying the various modifications in bony structure, venomous

104 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

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SKELETON OF A PYTHON. This reticulated python (python reticulatus) measured
twenty-two feet and nine inches. The skeleton is made up of numerous vertebrae
to which a pair of ribs is attached on each side. Snakes do not “walk on their
ribs’; it is the muscles attached to these ribs, not the ribs, that enable the snake
to move.

snakes noteworthy because of their potential danger to man, and typical
representatives of several main groups of amphibians and reptiles. Many
of the cases on this side of the hall answer such questions as “How do
reptiles and amphibians feed?’ or “How do they breed?” and “What is
the economic value of reptiles and amphibians?”

The Department of Amphibians and Reptiles is, at one and the
same time, a storehouse, a schoolroom, a bureau of information, a re-
search center and a source of educational and artistic exhibits. It
encompasses the activities of a secondary school as well as those of a
university, for it is not only searching out new facts and reaching new
conclusions from them but also presenting this information in such a
manner that it can be grasped by the elementary student or by the
interested layman.

Amphibians and Reptiles of the New York Region

An exhibit showing the species found within a radius of fifty miles
of New York City may be seen in the corridor of the Roosevelt Memorial
Wing on the first floor. It is intended especially for the use of those who
want to identify amphibians or reptiles encountered in their back yards.
It is of general interest in showing the number of kinds of salamanders,
frogs, turtles, lizards and snakes encountered within a limited region sur-
rounding the metropolitan area.

106 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

BIRDS

The science of bird study in all its aspects is known as ornithology.
Like other branches of zoology, the study of animal life, ornithology began
mainly as an attempt to determine the relationships, and to present a rea-
sonable system of classification, of all birds, both living and extinct. In
other words, the first challenge to an ornithologist was to describe and
name the birds of the world and to divide them into species, genera, fam-

ilies, and higher categories of kinship. This end has now been attained, ©

perhaps to a greater extent than in any other class of animals. Somewhat
more than 27,000 forms of birds (species and subspecies) are known.

‘The curve of new discoveries has long passed its steep rise and has
flattened out, owing to the fact that on an average only about two new
species of birds are now found annually in all the world. Possibly fewer
than 100 yet unknown species remain to be discovered. The situation
contrasts strongly with that in the very much larger class of insects in
which it is virtually certain that hundreds of thousands of species are
yet to be found and described.

The foregoing statement does not mean that the day of systematic
study in ornithology is past. There is still plenty to learn about the
relationships of the higher groups (families and orders), besides which
new methods in systematics, as applied to populations of closely related
birds, are constantly leading to a better understanding of the processes
of evolution.

It is true, neverthless, that about the beginning of the present
century, when research in experimental zoology was coming to the fore,
the contemporary interest in birds began to fall into a certain disrepute
as a scientific subject. Professional careers for ornithologists were at that
time limited in the United States chiefly to museums and to a few federal
or state departments.

107

Now, happily, all of that is changed for the better, and we may con-
fidently report that ornithology leads in several branches of biological
investigation, such as those relating to speciation and the steps of
evolution, to animal psychology (behavior), to the study of population
dynamics, geographical distribution and ecology.

Migration, homing and direction-finding, the whole field of the bird’s
innate abilities, its “mind” and its instinctive, as distinguished from its
learned, responses, its genetics and adaptations are today being widely
studied by critical experimental methods. A quantitative and statistical
approach has taken the place of the former aim of random observation
coupled with the amassing of collections of skins, eggs and nests.

It is the living bird that has come to offer the most fruitful oppor-
tunity for research and that ties up most closely with the study of other
animals, including man. As a result of all this change and growth, many
universities today seek trained ornithologists as regular members of their
biological faculties, and the future of the discipline of ornithology has
never seemed brighter or more comprehensive.

THE WHITNEY WING

The Whitney Wing of the Museum, newest section of our structure,

was a joint gift of the late Harry Payne Whitney and the City of New

York. It is wholly occupied by the Museum’s Department of Birds. Three
of its eight floors are devoted completely or in part to public exhibits.

The Whitney Memorial Hall of South Pacific Birds

The main entrance of this wing leads into Whituey Memorial Hall
from the New York State Theodore Roosevelt Memorial. The display
represents bird life on islands in the Pacific Ocean, covering an expanse
from Bering Strait southward beyond New Zealand and from the
Galapagos Archipelago and small islets off the coast of Peru westward
to the Australian barrier reef and New Guinea. Foyers at the ends of the
hall contain maps and mural texts which describe both the purpose and
plan of the exhibits. Here also are bronze busts of the late Messrs.
William C. Whitney and Harry Payne Whitney, father and son, to whom
the building and its contents are dedicated.

The design of this hall is intended to give the visitor the illusion
that he is standing in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and viewing
scenes in every direction throughout hundreds or even thousands of miles.
In short, the hall represents the Pacific itself, reduced to extremely small
compass. A common horizon crosses the background of all eighteen
habitat groups and from these the sky appears to rise behind the fronts
of the cases and to be continuous with the blue dome that forms the
ceiling of the hall. Suspended by invisible wires in this vault are ex-
amples of oceanic birds which inhabit the Pacific from the tropical
environment depicted near the northern end of the hall to the edge of
the Antarctic toward the south end. It is through the latter that the
visitor approaches from the Roosevelt Memorial building.

The eighteen habitat groups, beginning at the right of the entrance,
are as follows:

108

SHIP-FOLLOWERS. The point of view is from the deck of an old-
fashioned sailing vessel in the open sea south and east of New Zealand,
in the zone of the westerly winds. In the background is the Whitney
South Sea Expedition schooner, the “France,” which served the American
Museum during ten years in Polynesia. The expedition collected many
of the specimens used throughout this hall.

Pelagic birds shown in the exhibit comprise a variety of albatrosses
and petrels, especially characteristic of the higher southern latitudes.

SAMOA. A view from the hills of the island of Savaii toward the ocean.
The site is at the point where forest meets more open slopes. The birds
include those of both woodland and grassland, such as fruit pigeons,
ducks, members of the parrot family and many smaller forms. Especially
noteworthy is the Tooth-billed Pigeon (Didunculus), a very peculiar
member of the pigeon family, confined entirely to a few islands of the
Samoan group.

TUAMOTU. The island of Hao, an atoll, with the coral-grown lagoon
at the left and the surf of the open ocean on the right. In the distant
background, tree-and-shrub-covered segments of the island ring can be
seen. Among the coconut palms and other typical beach vegetation of a
coral island are man-o’-war birds, boobies, a nesting Red-tailed Tropic-
bird, several terns, including the white Fairy Tern which lays its egg
on rough bark or in the crotch of a bush, and also a number of shore
birds of both migratory and resident species. The example of the latter
is the rare or nearly extinct Polynesian Sandpiper, one of the smallest
members of its family, of which two stand in the left foreground.

The Tuamotu archipelago occupies a huge area in the central South
Pacific and is one of the most extensive island groups on earth.

MARQUESAS. A scene in the volcanic island of Nukuhiva, showing a
rugged shore line and ridges dissected by the sea, as viewed from a height
of nearly 2,000 feet. On the right is the Valley of ‘““Typee,” famous as the
locale of Herman Melville’s romance of the same name.

The birds include the giant pigeon which exists only at the island of
Nukuhiva, a smaller native fruit pigeon, swifts of the “edible-nest’” group,
warblers and Old World flycatchers peculiar to this island, a forest rail,
a ground dove and a pair of wild chickens or jungle fowl, the ancestors
of which were widely distributed in the Pacific by the original Polynesian
immigrants.

PERUVIAN GUANO ISLANDS. Looking southward across the Bay of
Pisco, Peru, from the southern island of the Chincha group. The scene
shows the rainless coast of Peru where climatic conditions are responsible
for the accumulation on such islands of sea bird manure, known as guano,
which was the fertilizer of the Incas and other ancient farming peoples
of the west coast of South America.

Despite the exhaustion of the old supplies of guano, it has again be-

come an important commercial resource in Peru and the industry is

now operated upon a scientific conservational basis.
The three principal species of guano-producing birds, all of which

BIRDS 109

PERUVIAN GUANO ISLAND GROUP IN THE WHITNEY HALL OF PACIFIC BIRDS. This
exhibit shows several guano islands in the Bay of Pisco, Peru, with their bird life.
The guano-producing birds represented are the Peruvian cormorant, pelican and
booby. Also included are the Peruvian penguin, Inca terns and two species of gulls.

are peculiar to the coasts of Peru and northern Chile, are shown. These
are the Peruvian Cormorant, the Peruvian Booby, and the Peruvian
Pelican. Other birds of interest are the white-moustached Inca Tern,
two species of gulls, and on the rocks of the painted background a dis-
tant cluster of Peruvian Penguins.

GALAPAGOS. This scene is in the heart of the Galapagos archipelago
looking from James Island across the water toward Albemarle, the
largest island of the group. The Galapagos lie on the equator about 600
miles west of the South American coast. They are famous as the native
home of many peculiar and long-isolated species of both plants and
animals, and they received their first notable scientific fame as a result
of the visit of Charles Darwin in H.M.S. “Beagle,” in 1835.

Man-o’-war birds, herons, an owl, mockingbirds and hawks are among
the birds shown in the exhibit. Most of these are remarkable because of
their total lack of shyness in the presence of man, a trait doubtless acquired
during residence throughout a very long period in a land without man
or other mammalian enemies.

The most important of the Galapagos birds from a biological point
of view are several species of small finches which show a great variation
in the size of the bill. These mostly belong to the genus Geospiza, and
Darwin's observations of them in the field are believed to have had much
to do with his original ideas on the principal of natural selection as an
explanation of evolutionary change.

HAWAII. This exhibit shows a deep and steep valley on the Hawaiian
island of Kauai, with slopes and gorges going down about 4,000 feet from
the high plateau of the island toward low banks above the beach. The

110

opposite or windward side of Kauai is extremely rainy and, on the right,
fragments of storm clouds are shown whisking out over the valley, which,
however, is not very humid because most of the rain falls farther to
windward.

The Hawaiian archipelago, like that of the Galapagos, has been
isolated from other land areas throughout many ages, and some of the
native birds and other animals show even more peculiar and pronounced
evolutionary changes. ‘The Hawaiian honeycreepers (Drepanididae), for
example, are obviously members of a single family of small land birds,
yet the specializations in the bills of several species range from short,
stout, almost parrot-like beaks to extremely long, pointed and sickle-
shaped organs. Feeding habits are, of course, correlated with such struc-
tures, for the stoutest-billed species can handle hard seeds and fruits,
whereas those with long slender bills must use them in taking nectar or
small insects and spiders from inside flowers. Several examples of these
honeyeaters are shown, but it would be impossible to display the whole
range of variation in bills without drawing upon species inhabiting other
islands of the Hawaiian group.

At the right of the group three geese are shown in flight, the species
being peculiar to Hawaii. In the air, down the valley, are two White-
tailed ‘Tropic-birds, and the small land birds include one or more species
having tufts of brightly-colored feathers which were used by the ancient
Hawaiians in making the famous feather cloaks worn by chiefs of high
rank.

LAYSAN. Albatrosses, of which there are some seventeen species in the
world, resort during the nesting season to remote oceanic islands. ‘There
they carry on their remarkably elaborate courtship procedure, lay the
single egg, and rear their chick before they depart once more on the
oceanic wanderings which continue until the return of the next breeding
season.

Most albatrosses inhabit the higher latitudes of the southern oceans
and no species regularly enters the North Atlantic. The North Pacific
Ocean, however, is the home of three kinds of albatrosses, two of which
are here shown on the nesting ground of Laysan Island, a leeward outlier
of the Hawaiian archipelago.

The two species shown are the white-breasted Laysan Albatross and
the all-dark, Black-footed Albatross. Both carry on an extraordinary
ritual, commonly known as a courtship dance, although it really par-
takes of community behavior. The birds on the nesting ground salute,
cross bills and bow not only to their own mates but to other albatrosses
of both sexes.

A pair of the small native teal of Laysan, found nowhere else in the
world, is also shown in this exhibit. Others displayed are nesting sea
birds, such as boobies, man-o’-war birds and petrels (which occupy
burrows in the sandy soil), and shore birds that make the island a rest-
ing place during their long migration from Alaskan breeding grounds
to a winter home among islands of the south seas — Bristle-thighed
Curlews, Golden Plovers, and others.

BIRDS 111

NEW CALEDONIA. This large island, which is east of Australia,
lies on one of the western Pacific arcs or submerged mountain ranges.
It has had no connection with any other land area since it rose from the
ocean in the early part of the Age of Mammals.

Because its life has been obtained by natural means from places across
the sea, it is interesting to note that, among the 64 species of New
Caledonian land birds, 6 belong to widespread Pacific species, 35 appear
to have come from Australia, and 23 from the New Guinea region.

New Caledonia has five genera of birds found nowhere else, these
comprising a pigeon, a parrot, a warbler, a honey-eater, and the strange
flightless heron-like Kagu. The last is a very extraordinary bird which
seems to have no near relatives anywhere else in the world.

The site of this exhibit is on the northeasterly coast of New Caledonia,
at an altitude of slightly more than 1,000 feet. The birds, in addition to
the Kagu (on the ground), include a fruit dove, kingfisher, cuckoo, war-
blers, flycatchers, whistlers, a wood-swallow, starling, honeyeaters and a
parrot finch.

SOLOMON ISLANDS. Since the United States armed forces made
history at Guadalcanal Island, the savage Solomons no longer seem so
far away as they formerly did. In this exhibit of bird life in a hot, humid
and mountainous archipelago, the background shows Guadalcanal itself.
The foreground represents a small islet off the southeastern end of Guadal-
canal, with a cluster of native huts, and a garden in which coconut palms,
bananas, papaya, cassava, breadfruit, taro and sweet potato are growing
on the site of a recently-felled tropical jungle.

The Solomon Islands have a rich bird fauna, with 128 species of land
birds alone. The 21 species shown in the exhibit can therefore be only
a representative selection. They include the following: the Brahminy
Kite, a bird of prey; the brush fowl, or megapode, which lays its eggs in
mounds of rotting vegetation so that the heat of fermentation may hatch
them; several species of doves, parrots, lories and cockatoos, including
the King Parrot, of which the male is green and the female a vivid red;
the Whiskered Tree Swift and various other colorful representatives of
Old World families, such as rollers, cuckoo-shrikes, flycatchers, sunbirds
and flower-peckers.

PHILIPPINES. ‘This exhibit shows historic Bataan Peninsula on the
island of Luzon, as viewed from nearly 3,000 feet above the sea at the
summit of Mount Cayapo. In the middle of the background is Corregidor,
famous island fortress, lying in the channel between Manila Bay and the
China Sea. The scars of war have been rapidly overgrown by tropical
vegetation and the forests and animal life of the region are relatively
unspoiled. |

The Philippines have about 325 species of native breeding birds. Of
these, 47 are shown in the exhibit, a number not more than half those
that might readily be seen at the site.

PAPUA. The great island of New Guinea is almost like a continent
in the wealth of its plant and animal life. Lying in tropical latitudes,

112 = BIRDS

its vast mountain ranges nevertheless rise to the level of snow, as shown
in the other New Guinea exhibit in this hall, the second beyond this.

The landscape of the Papuan group shows the Laloki River gorge
behind Port Moresby in the southern foothills of the Owen Stanley
Mountains. Although the site is only 9° south of the equator, the heat
is never oppressive here. Rainfall averages 90 inches annually in the
oak, tree-fern and beech forests of the mountains, but only about one-
third of that in the eucalyptus-dotted grasslands behind the Port. At
the right is the spectacular Rouna waterfall, 1,000 feet above sea level.
The area is an historic one because it was near here that Allied forces,
in bitter jungle warfare, turned back the tide of the Japanese onslaught
in the Second World War. The area is now a tranquil wilderness in-
habited by such species as the birds of paradise, crowned pigeons, casso-
waries, and bower birds shown in the group. More than 100 species of
native birds were observed in the vicinity of the Rouna Falls. Thirty-
nine of these are displayed in the exhibit.
ISLANDS IN BERING SEA. Little Diomede and Big Diomede are
two islands in Bering Sea, 50 miles south of the Arctic Circle and about
midway between Alaska and Siberia.

The site of this exhibit is the foot of a 1,000-foot cliff at the south
end of Little Diomede Island. Here, protected by isolation as well as

ARCTIC SEA BIRD LIFE. From a group in the Whitney Hall of Pacific Birds. The group
depicts the lower part of a 1000-foot cliff on Little Diomede Island in Bering Sea.
Here myriads of sea birds come each summer to lay their eggs and rear their young.

en rr EE te ne a SS EO

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF, AUSTRALIA. Most of the flying birds in this view are
sooty terns. The darker ones are part of a colony of brown noddies.

by the inaccessible nature of their haunts, myriads of murres, guillemots,
puffins, auklets, gulls and cormorants come each summer to lay their
eggs and rear their young.

SNOW MOUNTAINS OF NEW GUINEA. Among its 650 species
New Guinea has many birds not known in Australia, though the two
land masses are Only 100 miles apart at Torres Strait. A drop of 50 feet
in the sea level would probably join them. On a map of the United States,
New Guinea would reach from New York City to Colorado, and its
interior offers some of the largest unexplored areas on earth. This ex-
hibit depicts a scene on Lake Habbema, 11,000 feet above sea level,
looking southward toward Mount Wilhelmina. Parrots, birds of para-
dise and several kinds of flower-visiting birds, as honey eaters and
flowerpeckers, are among the most characteristic birds of the area. Every
altitudinal level has its own bird life, and few, if any, of these mountain
species can be found in the tropical lowlands. Many of the Snow Moun-
tain birds are very rare in collections, since they occur nowhere else in
the world.

114

eet

AN EXTINCT MOA OF NEW ZEALAND, reconstructed from a subfossil skeleton.

AUSTRALIAN BARRIER REEF. The Great Barrier Reef, which for
more than 1,200 miles guards the east coast of Australia, is the largest
coral reef in the world. In the extensive lagoon between the Barrier and
the mainland are countless lesser reefs, islets of coral limestone and,
near shore, higher islands which are detached fragments of the continental
rock. Many of these have collected wind-blown soil and have acquired
a luxuriant, even if limited, plant life. Others remain relatively bare,
still far enough above the reach of the ocean to furnish breeding grounds
for great colonies of sea fowl.

The birds of the Great Barrier are mostly of widespread types, as is
characteristic of the avifaunas of beaches and small islands. ‘They include
a noisy colony of Brown Noodies and Sooty Terns, the fledgling young
of the latter being the dark speckled birds which look so unlike their
parents. Australian Silver Gulls, Crested Terns, Reef Herons in both
gray and white phases, and man-o’-war birds complete the list of resi-
dent oceanic species. The sandpipers or tattlers in the beach pool are
winter migrants from northern Asiatic nesting grounds. The white

BIRDS 115

land birds painted in flight are Nutmeg Pigeons bound, perhaps, toward
fruit trees growing on the islets.

FIJI forms part of one of the several great island arcs to the east of
Australia and New Guinea and comprises more than 200 separate islands
and islets. ‘The larger members are mountainous, and many are sur-
rounded by fringing reefs of coral.

Fiji has about 54 species of land birds, or only half as many as the
Solomon Islands which are hundreds of miles nearer the ultimate source
of supply in the Australasian region. The principal Fijian types are birds
of families known to be able to make long colonizing flights across the
ocean, such as parrots, pigeons, kingfishers, starlings and white-eyes.

In the Silky Dove and the Golden Dove, Fiji has two of the most
spectacular of all birds. Both species are peculiar to this group of islands,
and one of them only to Viti Levu Island, the site of the exhibit. The
thirteen additional birds shown all belong to families found at other
Pacific islands, but the species are mostly peculiar to Fiji. Most of the
aboriginal Fijian birds are confined to mountain districts, while the,
common birds of town and village are more widespread or recently
introduced kinds.

NEW ZEALAND. The view looks across Lake Brunner in the South
Island Alps. The period is that of several centuries ago when many species
of the heayy and flightless moas lived as browsing and grazing birds in
this isolated part of the temperate world. Both plants and birds shown
belong to the older life of the islands, antedating the many kinds intro-
duced by man that have since become very conspicuous in New Zealand.
The landscape is on the western or rainy side of the mountains at the
edge of tall forests of almost tropical luxuriance.

The flora and fauna of New Zealand are a product of marked isola-
tion, the next large land area, Australia, being 1,200 miles away. Four-
footed mammals appear never to have reached New Zealand until they
were transported there by man. In the absence of enemies and of com-
peting grazing mammals, the peculiar and highly specialized moas took
the place of antelopes, wild cattle, etc. that lived in so many of the
world’s continental areas. Euryapteryx, a moderate-sized moa recon-
structed from a subfossil skeleton, is centered in the exhibit. In the
extreme left is a large flightless rail, the Takahe or Notornis, long thought
to be extinct in New Zealand but recently rediscovered. Other birds
shown include several native ducks, together with a pigeon, a falcon, an
owl, three species of parrots and several kinds of honey-eaters and other
song birds known only from New Zealand.

SNARES ISLAND. To the south of New Zealand, in the west wind
zone, lies a small and rarely visited subantarctic group of islets which are
called the Snares because they were regarded as a navigational hazard.
Since they have never been inhabited by man or such of his domestic
associates as rats, goats, pigs and weeds, the conditions today are much
as they were in primitive times.

116 = BIRDS

The climate is blustery, chilly and rainy, although never extremely
cold. There are about 25 kinds of higher plants, including ferns, the
most conspicuous elements being coarse, tall tussock grass and the “daisy
tree” (Olearia) which forms an eerie forest. The large orange blossom-
clusters belong to a groundsel shrub.

Seals of several kinds are the only mammals. The birds number a
little over a score of species. ‘They include Crested Penguins, albatrosses,
petrels, gulls, terns and skuas. ‘There are only two land birds, a tomtit
peculiar to the Snares, and a fernbird. A nearly flightless grass snipe 1s,
however, more of a land than a water bird.

In December, the southern “June,” the sea fowl are nesting, and
the multitudinous Sooty Shearwaters or “muttonbirds” fill the sky toward
sunset before dropping each to its own soggy burrow.

BIRDS OF PARADISE. The first case consists of two exhibits, one of
the Plume-Birds of Paradise, and one of the South Sea Lories, a group
of parrots. The second case contains an exhibit of the Rifle Birds (Birds
of Paradise) and one of various birds of the Malay Archipelago.

Leonard C. Sanford Hall

The Sanford Memorial Hall of Biology of Birds is located in The
Whitney Wing and is devoted mainly to diagrammatic exhibits illus-
trating the bird’s place in nature and many aspects of the structure,

descent, relationships and behavior of birds and their relation to man.

The exhibits are in part technical, and they deal with fundamental
scientific problems.

‘They are intended to be instructive rather than picturesque, although
a large exhibit of tropical marsh birds in flight against a sunset sky
faces the entrance of the Hall, and a number of other habitat exhibits
show beautiful and spectacular birds, extinct species, and certain extraor-
dinary aspects of reproductive behavior. At the left of the Hall is the
synoptic collection of birds of the world designed to show in systematic
sequence examples of virtually all of the families of birds and a large
proportion of the more important genera.

EXHIBIT EXPLAINING THE PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT.

HAND WING —
ee

ner

ARM WING,

Left, ANDEAN CONDOR. Detail of the high Andes Group. Right, MACAWS. Detail
of Barro Colorado Island Group, Panama Canal Zone.

A number of remarkable fossil birds are exhibited in Sanford Hall.
Among them is the toothed swimming bird, Hesperornis, which lived
in the age of dinosaurs. There is also a skeleton of a giant moa, from
New Zealand, and the skeleton of a giant, huge-billed bird, Diatryma,
which lived in western North America some 50,000,000 or more years ago.

Elsewhere are considered the physiology, flight, feather covering,
courtship, reproduction, geographical distribution, migration and other
biological phenomena in exhibits of a chiefly diagrammatic nature.

BIRDS OF THE WORLD HALL
This hall is given over to a projected series of twelve habitat groups
to show the major faunal areas of the world and their characteristic birds.
Eleven groups have been completed. The backgrounds, by Francis Lee
Jaques, Frank McKenzie and Arthur A. Jansson, are reproductions of
actual scenes made from color sketches and photographs taken on the
spot. Beginning at the right of the entrance, the groups are as follows:

PAMPAS GROUP. The pampas and lagoons of the South Temperate
Zone of South America harbor a varied assemblage of birds. These in-
clude some twenty species of North American sandpipers and plovers
that migrate to this region to spend the northern winter. Some of the
birds are permanent residents. The scene is laid at Lake Chascomus,
near Buenos Aires, Argentina, a region made famous by the writings of
William Henry Hudson to whom the group is dedicated.

118

HIGH ANDES GROUP. The Paramo Zone of South America is found
at sea level at the southern end of the continent but occupies increasingly
high elevations in the Andes, below the snow line, as the equator 1s
approached. In the neighborhood of Mt. Aconcagua, Chile, shown in the
background, this zone is reached at 10,000 feet elevation, but the birds
are still closely related to those of the lowlands of Patagonia and southern
Chile. The Andean Condor is a characteristic species.

AMERICAN TROPICAL ZONE. Barro Colorado Island, in the Canal
Zone, was once a hilltop and part of the unbroken humid tropical forest
of the Panamanian lowlands, but it was cut off from the surrounding
forest when the valley of the Chagres River was flooded by the closing of
the Gatun Dam. It is now preserved as a natural laboratory under the
care of the Institute for Research in Tropical America. It has been made
known through the writings of Dr. Frank M. Chapman, particularly by
his books “My Tropical Air Castle” and “Life in an Air Castle.”

SOUTH GEORGIA GROUP. The bird-life of the Antarctic regions
is not as rich in species as that of the tropics but possesses certain very
interesting forms, among which the penguins are outstanding. ‘The
group shows an assemblage of King Penguins on the island of South
Georgia, 1,200 miles east of Cape Horn. Among the other characteristic
species are the Wilson’s Petrel (one of the birds known to sailors as
“Mother Carey’s Chickens”), the Kelp Gull, Giant Fulmar, the curious
Sheathbill, and (painted) the Wandering Albatross.

EAST AFRICAN PLAINS. The easterly third of Africa is largely a
grassy country dotted with thorny bushes and trees. The Kidong Valley,
scene of the group, lies some 40 miles northwest of Nairobi, Kenya Colony,
in the Great Rift Valley that extends from northern ‘Tanganyika to the
Red Sea and southern Palestine. “The Ostrich, Marabou, Bustard,
Courser, Secretary Bird, Hoopoe, Coly and Lark shown in the group
are typical of the plains region, though some of the other birds shown
have close relatives in the forests.

CONGO FOREST GROUP. The equatorial forests along the Congo
River in western Africa are rich in bird-life. As in other tropical forests,
many species of birds often band together in loosely mixed flocks that
roam the woods for insects and other food, searching from the ground
to the tops of the trees. The exhibit shows such an assemblage of ant-
chasers together with other inhabitants of the region. The scene is at
Lukolela, about 500 miles upstream from the mouth of the Congo River.

AUSTRALIA. ‘This is a scene in the Blue Mountains of New South
Wales, about 100 miles west of Sydney, at the edge of the forest looking
out over the eucalyptus-dotted savanna. Two Lyre Birds (male and
female) have come to the forest margin. A flock of Crimson Rosella
Parrots has settled on the ground and in the trees, and two Eastern
Rosellas are nearby. Several Black-backed Magpies are on the ground
Or (painted) flying, and a Laughing Jackass is perched in a tree over-
head. Various characteristic birds of eastern Australia are shown, such
as the Peaceful Dove, Satin Flycatcher, Broad-billed Roller, Gang-gang

BIRDS 119

EASTERN ROSELLAS.
Detail from the
Australian bird group.

Cockatoo and others. In the distance (painted) are scattered the ostrich-
like groups of emus.

GOBI GROUP. The extensive desert of central Asia, known as the
Gobi, contains a number of brackish lakes, without outlets and fed by
surface and underground streams from mountains such as the Altai Range
shown in the background. The climate is cold except for a_ brief
summer, and the bird-life consists largely of migrant species that go
south for the winter, as the Demoiselle Crane, Great Bustard and Ruddy
Sheldrake. The Raven remains throughout the year. The interesting
Sand-Grouse often travels long distances daily for water and has an
irregular local migration.

PALAEARCTIC ALPINE GROUP. The Zermatt Valley and the Mat-
terhorn, in Switzerland, are shown with some of the birds of the upper
Alps at timberline at 7,000 feet elevation. Some of the species, like the
Wall Creeper and the Snowfinch, probably reached the Alps from the
Himalayas in prehistoric times when these two now distant mountain
ranges may have been continuous. Others, like the Arctic Ptarmigan and
Redpoll, may have come from the north, driven by the advancing ice
of the Glacial Period. Stili others are inhabitants of the lower elevations
that have extended their ranges upward to the timberline.

NEW FOREST GROUP. The Palaearctic Zone or Old World North-
ern Temperate Zone corresponds to the Nearctic or North ‘Temperate
Zone of North America. The families of birds found in the two regions
are much the same and some of the species are identical although their

120

local names may differ. Occasionally the same name is applied to quite
different species as in the case of the European and American robins,
The group shows the famous “Roosevelt Walk” in the New Forest, in
the Valley of the Itchen, in Hampshire, where Lord (then Sir Edward)
Grey and Theodore Roosevelt watched the birds together in 1910.

TUNDRA GROUP. Churchill, Manitoba, on the western side of
Hudson Bay, lies in what the Indian called the “land of little sticks.”
Here the Canadian forests to the southward are giving way to the tree-
less tundra that reaches northward to the Arctic Ocean. In summer the
tundra is dotted with inumerable insect-filled ponds. Here to nest come
myriads of migratory water birds — sandpipers, plovers, gulls, ducks
and geese — that have wintered in warmer lands to the southward. A
few land birds also nest on the tundra. One of these, the Arctic grouse
or Ptarmigan, is able to endure the long Arctic winter and, unlike most
of the tundra birds, does not migrate. A number of forest- or bush-
dwelling birds reach the northern limit of their distribution near Church-
ill. Some of these may be seen in the group.

HALL OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRD GROUPS

The backgrounds of the Hall of North American Bird Groups are
reproductions of specific localities, painted from sketches made by the
artist who usually went with the naturalists when the field studies for
the groups were made. Practically all sections of the country are shown;
thus the series shows characteristic North American scenery as well as
bird-life.

ORIZABA GROUP. The distribution of birds, in spite of their power
of flight, is limited in great measure by climate. Thus in traveling from
Panama north to Greenland there are zones of bird-life corresponding
to the zones of temperature. This condition is illustrated on the moun-
tain of Orizaba in Mexico where, in traveling from the tropical jungle
at its base to its snow-clad peak, the naturalist finds zones of life com-
parable with those to be found in going north on the continent.

COBB’S ISLAND GROUP. Among our most beautiful and graceful
shore-birds are the terns and gulls, which were once ceaselessly hunted
and killed for their plumage. Thanks to protection, they have now
greatly increased in numbers. The group represents a section of an
island off the Virginia coast where the birds are now protected by law.

DUCK HAWK GROUP. The Duck Hawk may be found nesting on
the Palisades of the Hudson River almost within the limits of New York
City. It nests on the ledges of the high cliffs. This hawk is the Peregrine
Falcon, much used for hunting in the Middle Ages. It often comes into
the city for pigeons.

-HACKENSACK MEADOW GROUP. In August and September the
meadows and marshlands bordering the Hackensack River, New Jersey,
formerly teemed with bird-life. In the group are swallows preparing to
igrate southward, Bobolinks or “Rice Birds” in autumn plumage, Red-

BIRDS 121

—

OP LITT RNIN NE ENREEAP POET OR + rene re

winged Blackbirds, Rails, Wood Ducks, and Long-billed Marsh Wrens.
Industry and settlement have driven many of the birds to quieter haunts.

WILD TURKEY GROUP. The Wild Turkey is a native of America
and was once abundant in the wooded regions of the eastern part of the
United States. It differs slightly in color from the Mexican bird, the
ancestor of Our common barnyard turkey that was introduced from
Mexico into Europe in 1502 and was brought by the colonists to America.
The scene is reproduced from studies near Slaty Forks, West Virginia.

FLORIDA GREAT BLUE HERON GROUP. The Great Blue Heron
usually nests in trees. The bird flies with its neck curved back on its body,
and because of this habit it can be easily distinguished from cranes.
Locale is near St. Lucie, Florida.

WATER TURKEY OR “SNAKE-BIRD” GROUP. In the yellow pond-
lily swamps near St. Lucie, Florida, grown with cypresses and cabbage
palmettos, the shy Water Turkey builds its nest. It gets the name
“turkey” from its turkey-like tail, and the title “snake-bird” from its
habit of swimming with only the long slender neck and head above
water.

SANDHILL CRANE GROUP. Unlike the Herons, the Sandhill Crane
builds its nest of reeds in the water. It differs also in its manner of
flight, always fully extending its neck when on the wing. The scene is
the Kissimmee Prairies of Florida.

BROWN PELICAN GROUP. Pelican Island, on the Indian River of
Florida, has been made a reservation by the United States government
to protect these grotesque birds. ‘The view shows a section of the island
at the height of the nesting season.

AMERICAN EGRET GROUP. This beautiful bird was once almost
wiped out through the use of its “aigrette plumes” for hats. It is now
found again throughout much of its former range, owing to effective
protection. The birds have these plumes only during the nesting season,
at which time the death of the parent means the starvation of the young.
This group represents a rookery in South Carolina.

TURKEY VULTURE GROUP. The Turkey Vulture or “Buzzard” is
one of the best-known birds of the South, where it is a valuable scavenger.
It is protected by law and by sentiment and has become both abundant
and tame. The scene is on Plummer’s Island, above Washington, in the
Potomac River.

CALIFORNIA CONDOR GROUP. The California Condor is the
largest and one of the rarest birds of North America. In the group the
visitor stands in the interior of the condor’s cave, looking down on the
river of the Piru Canon, California.

BRANDT’S CORMORANT GROUP. The foreground of the group
shows a detail of the island that is painted in the background. The young
birds are feeding and it may be noted that one fledgling is reaching down
the mother’s throat after the predigested food.

122 = BIRDS

SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY GROUP. This area was once an arid place
with a characteristic desert bird fauna. Since ranchers have irrigated the
land, aquatic bird-life is plentiful. ‘Chis group is a good illustration of
the influence of man on the bird-life of a region.

FLAMINGO GROUP. There were estimated to be two thousand nests
in this colony in the Bahama Islands. ‘The Flamingos make their nests
by scooping up mud with their bills and packing it down with bill and
feet. Ihe nests are raised to a height of twelve or fourteen inches, pro-
tecting the eggs and young from high water. Only one egg is laid, and
the down-covered young is fed by the mother on predigested food.
BOOBY AND MAN-O’-WAR BIRD GROUP. Part of a coral islet in the
Bahamas shows three thousand boobies nesting on the ground and four
hundred Man-o’-War birds nesting in the sea grape bushes.

FLORIDA ROOKERY GROUP. This Florida Everglades group shows
Roseate Spoonbills, Snowy Egrets, American Egrets, Little Blue Herons,
Louisiana Herons, Ibises, Cormorants and Water Turkeys. Because of
the isolation of this island it was one of the last places to be visited by
the plume-hunter.

WHISTLING SWAN GROUP. A Whistling Swan on the nest is seen
far across the arctic tundra, the summer home of this species. The nest
is of moss, etc., and in it are two to five white eggs, four and a quarter
inches long. Both male and female share the labor of nest-building,
incubation, and caring for the young.

AMERICAN EGRET GROUP,
in the Hall of
North American Birds.

GOLDEN EAGLE GROUP. The Golden Eagle is one of the most
widely distributed of birds. In North America it is common from the
Rockies to the Pacific, and as far east as Maine. Its food consists of
rabbits, squirrels, woodchucks and occasionally lambs.

KLAMATH LAKE GROUP. The bird-life here shows how normal
nesting habits may be changed by birds being forced to live in a new
place. White Pelicans that usually make a nest of pebbles, Caspian
Terns that commonly build their nests on sand, and Cormorants that
nest on rocks are all nesting together here on the islets of the lake.

ARCTIC-ALPINE BIRD-LIFE GROUP. The scene in this group is
above the timberline on a crest of the Canadian Rockies, 8,000 feet above
the sea. Although those mountains are in the temperate region, the
altitude gives climatic conditions that would be found in the far North,
and the bird-life is arctic in character. White-tailed Ptarmigans, Rosy
Finches and Pipits are nesting here.

SAGE GROUSE GROUP. The male Sage Grouse is shown, strutting
and wooing a mate in the sage brush of a western plateau near Medicine
Bow, Wyoming.

PRAIRIE CHICKEN GROUP. The Prairie Chickens are the common
grouse of the western grasslands. ‘The group shows a typical scene during
the mating season. The male birds go through most surprising antics
in their efforts to attract the females. They blow up the orange-colored
sacs on the sides of their necks, dancing and strutting about, and utter-
ing a loud, resonant, booming note.

CANADA GOOSE GROUP. The Canada Goose is one of the first birds
to migrate north in the spring. It nests among the lakes of Canada even
before the ice is melted. The Scene is at Crane Lake, Saskatchewan,
Canada.

GREBE GROUP. The Grebes are aquatic birds, building their nests
in the water. During incubation the parent usually covers the eggs
with grass and reeds when leaving the nest. Nesting at the same lake
with the Grebes was the Redhead Duck.

LOON GROUP. The Loon is justly famed for its skill as a diver and
can swim with great speed under water. Its “laugh” and other calls are
familiar sounds on the northern New England lakes. Many Loons pass
the winter at sea fifty miles or more from land.

BIRD ROCK GROUP. This rocky island thirty miles from shore in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence gives protection to the sea birds that still nest
in considerable numbers on its cliffs. Seven species are shown nesting
in the group—the Razorbilled Auk, Leach’s Petrel, Gannet, Pufhn,
Kittiwake Gull, Common Murre and Brunnich’s Murre.

124 BIRDS

MAMMALS

A mammal is a warm-blooded backboned animal, clothed with fur
or hair. The young are fed with milk by the mother. Mice, cats, dogs,
horses, elephants, whales, monkeys and men are mammals. Birds, snakes,
frogs, turtles and fishes all have backbones but they are not mammals.
They have neither fur nor hair nor do they nurse their young with milk.

The Department of Mammals is devoted to their study — classifica-
tion, physical structure, developments, including growth and size, dis-
tribution, adaptation to environment, abundance and many other
avenues of research. Field and laboratory investigation results are
presented in both scientific and popular publications.

The Department also is responsible for the splendid natural habitat
groups to be seen in the various halls. Here the visitor will see repre-
sentative mammals from all parts of the world, together with the kind
of environment in which they live. There is a multiple purpose in such
exhibition. The visitor sees the animal at home, he appreciates the
relationship between the environment and the kind of creature that can
live in it, and he is brought to realize the necessity of preserving such
environments if the animals themselves are not to be driven out of
existence. Thus, both the aims of education and of conservation are
served.

THE HALL OF NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALS

The Hall of North American Mammals is approached from the Hall
of New York State Mammal exhibits. It was opened to the public on
April 8, 1942. A few of the groups are still under construction.

At the west end of the hall, opposite the entrance, is the ALASKA
BROWN BEAR GROUP. These great carnivores are shown against
the background of the Pinnacles, steep mountains of the Alaska Peninsula.

125

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ALASKA BROWN BEAR, the world’s largest carnivore. It goes into hibernation on
the mountain slopes in the fall and emerges in April or May.

A salmon lies on the shore of a small creek. The Otter that caught the
salmon is being frightened away by the approach of the bears.

On either side of the entrance to the hall are small-scale groups, show-
ing the mammals of North America and their environments during the
Ice Age. These animals are now extinct here, although their close rela-
tives exist in other parts of the world. Some of our living mammals
could have been found in company with extinct ones. The group to the
right shows the mammals found in Alaska. The group on the left
depicts those that occurred in southern California.

The GRANT CARIBOU in their home on the Alaska Peninsula
appear in the first large group to the right of the entrance.

126

WHITE OR DALL SHEEP. These three rams show a group of bachelors during a
period of the year when the sexes do not mingle.

Next is the WHITE SHEEP GROUP. Handsome rams are resting
far above the timber line on a mountain in Alaska, with the golden glow
of the “midnight sun” striking the white peak of Mount McKinley in
the background.

The ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP GROUP shows remarkable dif-
ferences of color and structure from the White Sheep. The massive,
closely spiralling horns of the Bighorn contrast with those of the White
Sheep. In the foreground may be seen a Mantled Ground Squirrel, locally
called “Big Chipmunk.”

‘The ALASKA MOOSE GROUP, in the center aisle, displays two

great bulls locked in a struggle for mastery over a cow, which appears

MAMMALS 127

AE OO ESE OE EE EE ot SOE ME

THE BIGHORN SHEEP inhabits the rugged mountains far above the tree line and
descends only when forced down by deep snow. The scene portrayed for this group
in the American Museum is in Jasper Na‘ional Park, Alberta.

unconcerned over the outcome. A number of Moose painted in the
background indicate their abundance on the Kenai Peninsula, where the
scene 1s laid. A Canada Jay, or Whiskey Jack, perches in a bush to the
right of the fighters, and a Spruce Grouse is in a tree to the left of
the cow.

The GRIZZLY BEAR GROUP, with a male, a mother Bear and her
two cubs, is around the corner to the right. They are on the edge of
the Canyon of the Yellowstone River in the National Park. The Falls
are in the distance, and an Osprey, or Fish Hawk, its nest placed on a
rocky pinnacle, soars in the middle distance.

The JAGUAR GROUP is located in Sonora, Mexico. Two Jaguars,
America’s largest spotted cats, crouch on a rocky mountainside at sunset.

The MOUNTAIN LION GROUP has for its background the pic
turesque Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. One Mountain Lion lies
completely relaxed on the rocky floor of a shallow cave, while the other
keenly watches the movements of a deer far below.

Behind the ALASKA BROWN BEAR GROUP is a faunal map of
North America and photographs of mammals in the wild.

The WAPITI GROUP is on the opposite side of the hall from the
MOUNTAIN LION GROUP. A splendid bull Wapiti, or American
Elk, a cow, a yearling bull and a calf of the year are shown in the
northern Colorado Rockies.

The VIRGINIA DEER, or Whitetail, still occurs in numbers in the
New York Metropolitan area, as this scene in Bear Mountain Park testi-

128

WAPITI. This animal is generally known in America as the Elk. It in some ways
resembles the European Red Deer.

fies. A buck, a doe, and a young of the year stand amid the brilliantly
colored foliage of the eastern fall.

The MULE DEER GROUP is portrayed with the Devil’s Tower,
northeastern Wyoming, in the background.

BISON AND PRONGHORN ANTELOPE on the North Platte
River, Wyoming, occupy the large case opposite the MOOSE GROUP.
Vast herds of Bison formerly spread from the Appalachians to the
Rockies and from Mexico to the Canadian Northwest. The Pronghorn,
which is not an antelope and has no close relatives, is the only hollow-
horned ruminant that sheds the horns annually.

A Prairie Dog is poking its head out of a burrow, and Cowbirds are
associated with the Bison.

The MUSK OX GROUP, around the corner, demonstrates that the
Musk Ox is well equipped for life in the rigorous Arctic regions. In its
long, dense coat of fur and hair, it is quite at home in the blizzards of
northern Ellesmere Land.

The ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT GROUP exhibits a billy, a nanny
and a kid on a mountain in southern Alaska, overlooking a beautiful
fiord, the Endicott Arm.

The OSBORN CARIBOU GROUP is placed against a background
of mountain grasslands in northern British Columbia. ‘Though these
Caribou often move down into the forest during winter storms, they do
not migrate like the Arctic Caribou of the tundras of the far north. A
covey of Ptarmigan may be seen in the background.

MAMMALS 129

THE MUSK OX is now restricted to
certain parts of Arctic America,
though in the Ice Age it ranged over
most of Europe, Asia, and what is
now the United States.

Behind the two largest groups, the Moose and the Bison, are the

north and south galleries, containing smaller habitat groups.

North Gallery, beginning to the right of the entrance (not open

as the General Guide goes to press):

GRAY FOX AND OPOSSUM in the Great Smoky Mountains
National Park

FISHER AND PORCUPINE near Mt. Washington

RACCOON in Okefinokee Swamp, Georgia

BEAVER in Gladwin Reservation, central Michigan

MOUNTAIN BEAVER in Mt. Ranier National Park

LYNX AND SNOWSHOE RABBIT, Mt. Albert, Gaspe, Quebec

CALIFORNIA GRAY SQUIRREL in Oregon

South Gallery, beginning to the left of the entrance:

ANTELOPE JACK AND BLACK-TAILED JACK RABBIT if
cactus country of southern Arizona

BLACK BEAR in cypress swamp in Florida

COTTONTAIL RABBIT in corn field near Ithaca, N. Y.

TIMBER WOLF at night in forest of northern Minnesota

SPOTTED SKUNK AND CACOMISTLE at Shiprock, northern
Arizona

COYOTE in Yosemite Valley, California

SKUNK at dusk near Delaware Watergap, N. J.

130 MAMMALS

THE MOUNTAIN GOAT is famous for its climbing ability. The animals in the Museum
exhibit reproduced here are shown on a ledge overlooking the Sawyer Glacier in
Alaska.

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THE REAR GUARD. Detail from the great elephant group in the Akeley African Hall.
In every herd of elephants, in the wild condition at least, one animal takes the
responsibility of wheeling about at frequent intervals to see that all is well behind.
The young male shown above is mounted in this position in the elephant herd. It
was collected by John T. McCutcheon in 1910 when he was in the field with Carl
Akeley.

AKELEY MEMORIAL HALL OF AFRICAN MAMMALS

The main floor of this hall, entered from the Theodore Roosevelt
Memorial Building, was opened to the public in the Spring of 1936. Here
are exhibited mammals typical of Africa, in their natural surroundings.

At each side of the door. are sculptured representations of African
natives by Malvina Hoffman. At the opposite end are a very large pair
of elephant tusks.

132 MAMMALS

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In the center, dominating the hall, stands a herd of AFRICAN
ELEPHANTS in characteristic formation when alarmed. ‘The great
bull’s trunk is raised to test the air for scent, while a younger bull wheels
about to cover the rear of the herd from possible attack.

Immediately to the right of the entrance is the WATER HOLE
GROUP. The animals of the plains must come, during the dry season,
to such seepage holes to drink. Drawn together by their common thirst
are Reticulated Giraffes, Grant Gazelles, Oryxes with long straight horns,
and Grevy Zebras. Other typical mammals of Kenya are seen in the
background.

Next are the MOUNTAIN NYALA, handsome antelopes, on the
heather-covered uplands of Abyssinia.

A herd of AFRICAN BUFFALO emerges from the marshes along the
‘Tana River, Kenya, in late afternoon.

A FAMILY GROUP OF LIONS rests in the shade of a tree, their
tawny hides dappled with sunshine. In the background a herd of ante-
lopes and zebras feeds unconcernedly.
~ “The BONGO GROUP show a pair of these boldly striped antelopes
in their native bamboo forest high on the Aberdare Mountains, Kenya.
They have disturbed another typical forest-dweller, the Giant Forest

Hog.
The GIANT ELAND, in the southern Sudan, is the largest of the
antelopes.

The UPPER NILE REGION GROUP. Waterbuck, Kob, Nile
Lechwe, Tiang Antelope, Situanga, Roan Antelope and Hippopotamus
are found together in this exhibit. A tributary of the Nile, showing
sunning crocodiles, forms the background.

At the end of a short hallway, there is a large-scale map of Africa,
showing localities from which the various animals and their settings were
taken.

To the left of the Upper Nile Region Group is the PLAINS GROUP.
Here is the teeming mammalian life of the East African plains. ‘The
several kinds of antelope and zebra in this group are typical of this part
of Africa.

The GREATER KOODOO, the most prized of the twisted-horn
antelopes, bears the longest horns of any. An old male, a female and a
young male stand in a setting duplicating the rough, scrub-covered hills
where these animals were collected.

The GIANT SABLE is noted for its elegant form, deep rich color and
| long saber-like horns. It is found in a limited area of the dry, park-like
country of central Angola and is rapidly becoming extinct.

The GEMSBOK is a larger relative of the Oryx seen in the Water
Hole Group. Although once widely distributed in South Africa, the
Gemsbok is now common only in dry parts of the Kalahari Desert.

The OKAPI is forest-dwelling and is the only living relative of the
Giraffe.

The LIBYAN DESERT shelters such animals as the Addax, with

134 MAMMALS

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AFRICAN BUFFALO. Detail of the group in Akeley African Hall.

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MOUNTAIN GORILLA. Of all living animals, the gorilla appears to be most nearly
like man. The adult males may reach a weight of 500 pounds. Their strength is
tremendous and they are dangerous when enraged. They are found in the rain
forests in the highlands of the eastern Belgian Congo. Terrestrial in habit, they
feed on fruits and herbage. Details of group in Akeley African Hall.

their spirally twisted horns, the White Oryx, with the scimiter-shaped
horns, and the Addra Gazelles.

The GORILLA family is of particular significance because these
great apes are among the most man-like of all the living animals. They
are shown here in a clearing in the dense rain forest of the Kivu
Mountains, an exact replica of their natural habitat.

Gallery of Akeley African Hall

The first group on the right shows the KLIPSPRINGER, the small,
rock-climbing antelope in the background. East African Baboons are in
the right foreground and a pair of Mountain Reedbuck appears on the
left. Among the rocks in the left foreground is a Hyrax or Cony.

A pair of CHEETAH, fast-running cats, closely watches two Nyalas
which have just come out of the forest. This setting is in the country
near the lower Zambesi River in Mozambique.

A party of CHIMPANZEES is in their tree habitat overlooking the

MAMMALS 137

GERENUK of East Africa is said not
to drink even in the well-watered
Tanganyika country.

Cavally River, which forms the boundary between the Ivory Coast and
Liberia. ‘The animal at the right is in the process of building a nest.

LESSER KOODOO, the males of which have twisted horns, are in
company with two Gerenuks — strange, long-limbed, long-necked ante-
lopes with small heads. A flock of Vulturine Guinea Fowl is seen in
the background.

A scene from the dense rain forest of the Cameroons shows a group
of MANDRILLS looking for food. The females of these baboons are
appreciably smaller than the males.

IMPALA prefer the park-like country in which they are shown. With
their lithe bodies and lyre-shaped horns, the males rank among the most
beautiful of the antelopes.

The WHITE OR SQUARE-MOUTHED RHINOCEROS is mis-
called “white” from its habit of wallowing in mud that dries lighter in
color. ‘The “square” mouth is an anatomical character. In front of this
family group is an African Porcupine.

On the other side of the passage, at the end of which is a large map
of Africa, a BLACK RHINOCEROS family enjoys a mud wallow.

A HUNTING DOG pack at evening looks across the plains to where
herds of Wildebeests and Zebras can be dimly seen. The dogs rarely

138 9 MAMMALS

WHITE RHINOCEROS GROUP.

COLOBUS MONKEY. Its long, hand-
some black-and-white coat suggests
a bishop’s robe. Actually, it blends
with the hanging, light-colored lichens
and dark shadows of its forest hab-
itat.

IN THE SOUTH ASIATIC HALL.

GROUP

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THE LEOPARD

attack these larger species. Gazelles, Impala, and smaller animals are
their usual prey.

The HYENA-JACKAL-VULTURE GROUP. Out on the Serengeti
Plains, Tanganyika, a pair of lions have killed a zebra. As they with-
draw after completing their feast, the scavengers arrive for their share
of the spoils. The animals and birds included in this group are a Spotted
Hyena, two Black-backed Jackals, White-backed Griffon Vultures, a
Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture, two Eared Vultures, a Hood Vulture, a
Marabou Stork and a White-collared Raven,

LEOPARDS about to spring upon an unsuspecting BUSH PIG is
the subject of the next group. The scene is on the edge of a small swamp
in the Aberdare Mountains, Kenya.

~The COLOBUS MONKEY GROUP shows a troop of these showy
black and white monkeys among the branches of a tree overlooking a
section of the Aberdare Mountain Forest, Kenya.

The SOUTH AFRICAN GROUP depicts typical mammals of the
high veldt as they were when white men first came there. Springbok are
now greatly reduced in number and Blesbok and Black Wildebeest
have survived only on a few farms where they are protected.

The OSTRICH GROUP includes a pair of these large birds with
young ones just hatched from the eggs. The Wart Hogs would relish
the young ostriches but the parents stand guard belligerently.

VERNAY-FAUNTHORPE HALL OF SOUTH ASIATIC MAMMALS

This hall is entered from the left or southern end of the Roosevelt
Memorial Hall.

From 1922 to 1928, Mr. Arthur S. Vernay of Great Britain made six
expeditions to India, Burma and Siam to collect and give to the Museum
this collection. It is considered the finest and most complete exhibit
of the larger South Asiatic Mammals in existence.

Two fine examples of the INDIAN ELEPHANT stand in the center
cf the hall, giving due prominence to the largest and perhaps most
characteristic mammal of southern Asia. This species differs from the
African Elephant in its smaller ears, higher forehead, and arched back.
It also has different teeth and trunk with only one “finger.”

The INDIAN LEOPARD differs only slightly from those found in
Africa. Both are forest animals but occur in the dry bush country also.
They feed on deer. pig, and larger birds such as the peafowl, an example
of which has been captured by the Leopard in this group.

The SAMBAR is the largest of the Indian deer, found throughout
the wooded part of southern Asia. Its size makes it an important source
of food for the larger meat-eaters, but it is powerful and may be dangerous
when brought to bay. The Red Wild Dog or Dhole of India hunts
in packs, sometimes as many as forty strong. ‘These packs are able to kill
animals as large as the Sambar.

The BLACK BUCK is found in the high plains country. The adult
male alone is blackish, the females and even young males are yellowish-

MAMMALS 141

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THE GAUR. The Gaur is an imposing animal of India, Burma and the Malay Penin-
sula. It is found in the forests, but sometimes feeds in grassy areas on the high
hills. It is not found in the lowlands.

ASIATIC WATER BUFFALO. These buffaloes are the cattle of the grassy plains of
india. They are widely domesticated as draft animals and furnish milk to the
natives.

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THE BANTING closely resembles the Jersey cow in both its rich brown color and
its physical appearance. However, the male Banting’s coloration blackens with age.

brown. The Chinkara or Indian gazelle also is found in this country.

The MUNTYAGC, also called Barking Deer, is one of the most primi-
tive of the true deer. Males have well-developed canine teeth. ‘The
antlers are supported on bony structures called pedicels. “The Mouse
“Deer” or Chevrotain is not a true deer, but is more closely related to
the Camels.

The LION formerly had an extended range, chiefly in the plains
country of northern India. It is usually pale in color but does not differ
greatly from the several races found in Africa.

The FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE is the only living wild four-
horned mammal. It is found in small groups in most wooded and hilly
parts of India but not in dense jungle. The Smooth Otter is found
south of the Himalaya Mountains in India, Burma and the Malay
Peninsula.

‘The CHITAL or AXIS DEER is one of the most attractive of the
deer family. The young of most deer are spotted. This species retains
the spotted pattern throughout life. It frequents the bamboo jungle and
wooded regions near water and is found in suitable habitats throughout
most of India and Ceylon.

The GAUR is perhaps the largest of the existing cow-like animals.
Large bulls stand over six feet at the shoulder. ‘The Gaur is found in
forested hilly country from India to Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula.

The WATER BUFFALO occurs in the lowlands and swamps of
central India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula. Buffaloes have been
domesticated and used as beasts of burden and milch animals. ‘The wild
buffalo is the most dangerous Asiatic bovine to hunt, for it frequently
charges without provocation. A herd will attack a tiger without hesita-
tion.

The great one-horned INDIAN RHINOCEROS is characterized by
thickened skin which has the appearance of plate armor. Its prehensile,
or grasping, upper lip shows that it feeds partly at least on leaves and
twigs, although it is found chiefly in the grass-jungles of Assam.

MAMMALS 143

The BANTING is possibly the most like the domestic cow in appear-
ance of all the wild bovines, and may be ancestral to the Indian cattle.
It is, however, closely related to the Gaur. It is found in flat country at
lower altitudes. The Banting occurs’from Burma and Cochin China to
Bali in the Malay Archipelago.

The ELD DEER or THAMIN is distinguished from other species
by the graceful curve of the antlers in the male. It is found on the river
plains and in suitable locations east of the Bay of Bengal, from Assam
and Manipur to Cambodia, Hainan, and the Malay Peninsula.

The SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS is related to the Indian species
but has two horns and is much smaller. It is found in Assam, Burma,
Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. It is rare and secretive
and is found exclusively in forests.

The SLOTH BEAR is characterized by the long flexible muzzle
which is used to root termites from their deep runways. These bears feed
almost entirely on insects, fruits and honey. They climb trees with
difficulty. Sloth Bears are usually timid, but if wounded or cornered,
they may be dangerous.

The HOG DEER or PARA is a small relative of the Sambar and is
found in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the flat country in Burma, and much
of Indo-China. It is usually solitary in habit.

The INDIAN WILD BOAR is closely allied to the Eurasian Boar
hut has a higher crest. It is one of the most savage of Indian mammals,
fighting until killed.

GIBBONS are the least human of the man-like apes and the most
disposed to live in trees. They are capable of walking upright but prefer

THE GIANT PANDA. This interesting crea-
ture lives in the bamboo forests growing
on the sides of the mountains of western
China. Though it resembles a bear in out-
ward appearance, anatomical studies show
that it is more closely allied to the raccoon.

SIBERIAN TIGER. From a group in the North
Asiatic Hail.

to travel by swinging from branch to branch and from tree to tree. ‘The
Hoolock Gibbon inhabits the hills of Assam, Burma, and southern
Yunnan. Males are generally black with white brows. Females are often
pale yellowish-gray.

The SWAMP DEER or BARASINGHA is related to the Thamin,
but differs in the shape of the antlers. It is a large species, preferring to
live in the neighborhood of water in open forests and on grassy plains.
This group also includes a family of Sambar.

The TIGER is the largest Asiatic cat. ‘Tigers live in the forests and
tall grass country, the stripes blending closely with the light and shadow
of this habitat. They feed largely on deer and pigs but frequently kill
domestic cattle. Individuals too old or decrepit to catch their usual
prey may become man-eaters.

NORTH ASIATIC MAMMALS

‘These may be seen in the circular hall at the end of the South Asiatic
Mammal Hall, or through the adjoining Special Exhibition Hall.
Eventually, the exhibits will cover the region north of the Himalayas,
including Tibet, Afghanistan, Mongolia and Siberia.

Two groups are now completed — THE GIANT PANDA GROUP
and the SIBERIAN TIGER GROUP. Material for the third, or SAIGA
ANTELOPE, incomplete, is laid out in one of the cases.

Until such time as other groups are planned and completed, the
remainder of the hall is given over to the Corner Gallery, where tem-
porary exhibits of current interest are displayed.

MAMMALS 145

THE HALL OF OCEAN LIFE

Leading from the Hall of Fishes is the Hall of Ocean Life. In it are
displayed whales, porpoises, marine mammals, the great CORAL REEF
GROUP and marine invertebrates.

“Oscar,” the whale embryo, is shown in the vestibule of the hall,
opposite the shell of a great clam.

Immediately upon entering the hall, the visitor will note the large
skeletons and models of whales and porpoises suspended from the ceiling.
In the corner, at the left of the entrance, is a model of the WHITE
WHALE, a large northern porpoise. Just in front of the entrance to
the hall is the striking full-size model of the KILLER WHALE, with
contrasting black and white markings. ‘The Killer Whale is a fierce
hunting animal, capable of swallowing a fur seal or small porpoise at
a gulp. Near the Killer and facing it hangs the model of a BLACKFISH,
which, like the Killer, is a species of giant porpoise, although milder in
disposition. Skeletons of these animals are below the models.

Above the balcony in front of the entrance is suspended a life-like
model of a GIANT SQUID, a great backboneless sea animal upon which
the Sperm Whale preys. The large skeleton to the right is that of a
SPERM WHALE, the largest of the living toothed whales. ‘The Sperm
Whale was formerly most sought by whalers as the source of spermaceti,
a white, brittle, fatty substance found in the sperm-oil in the head of the
whale. It was used in making candles and in salves and ointments.
Beyond the Sperm Whale, on the same side, hangs a skeleton of the
FINBACK WHALE.

Just above these two large skeletons are found skeletons of the
NARWAHL and species of toothed whales, including several rare types.
At the near end of this row is a Sperm Whale model, and at the far end
a small model of the SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALE, the largest animal
in the world.

Along the left side of the hall, three skeletons of whales are hung.
The one nearest the entrance is a RIGHT WHALE, the middle one a

SKELETON OF THE ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE. The “whalebone” is shown in the
skeleton suspended from the roof of the mouth as close-set, horny plates.

HARPOONING THE SPERM WHALE DURING THE DAYS OF SAILING SHIPS. One of a
series of murals in the Hall of Ocean Life depicting whaling in olden times when
sailing vessels were used and the whales were captured with a harpoon thrown
by hand.

PYGMY RIGHT WHALE, and the third a CALIFORNIA GRAY
WHALE. Above them is a long row of life-like models of whales and
porpoises, ranging in species from the Right Whale and the Common
Dolphin to the rare River and Lake Dolphins.

About the center of the row is a model of the PYGMY SPERM
WHALE. At the far end are two large models, one of the spectacular
NARWHAL with long ivory tusk (at the right), the other the FALSE
KILLER, formerly a very rare species, but in recent years appearing un-
expectedly off the British Isles and the coast of South Africa, where a
large number were stranded in shallow water.

Around the walls of the balcony are eleven murals. Along the right
side are four great paintings showing scenes typical of AMERICAN
SPERM WHALING and titled respectively ““The Chase,” ‘““The Attack,”
“Towing the Carcass.” and “Trying Out.” On the left wall are three
canvases portraying the life of ‘(TYPICAL SPECIES OF WHALES, in-
cluding “Bowhead Whale,” “Finback Whale,” and “Killer Whales Attack-
ing a Gray Whale.” ‘These seven murals are the work of Mr. John P.
Benson, the noted marine painter.

The walls to the right and left of the entrance bear murals by J. M.
Guerry: left, the Sulphur-bottom Whale; right, Sperm Whale with its
favorite food, the Giant Squid.

Below the level of the balcony and hanging just beyond reach from
the rail at the head of the stairway is a cast of a YOUNG SPERM
WHALE which came into New York Harbor and was eventually made
captive in the Gowanus Canal in Brooklyn. It was brought entire to
the Museum.

On the main floor of the Hall of Ocean Life and under the balcony
are the habitat groups of marine mammals. Beginning at the near right

MAMMALS 147

A BULL WALRUS FROM THE PACIFIC WALRUS GROUP IN THE HALL OF OCEAN LIFE.
One of the specimens secured by the Stoll-McCracken Expedition to Bering Sea.
Group presented by Mrs. Andrew Carnegie.

A FAMILY OF FUR SEALS. Details from a group in the Hall of Ocean Life.

A toy-size antelope, Swayne’s dik-dik is a
close relative of the Giant Eland which
weighs 1200 pounds: one of the many inter-
esting exhibits in the Synoptic Hall.

corner, the first of these is the group of NORTHERN ELEPHANT
SEALS, huge, ponderous animals that have hauled themselves out on
the rocky beach of Guadaloupe Island, Lower California. The full-
grown male of this species has a long, hanging proboscis suggestive of
an elephant’s trunk. Next is the exhibit of the FLORIDA MANATEE,
a thick-set beast, well-adapted to its life in the water.

The PACIFIC WALRUS, one of the largest groups in the Museum,
shows these Arctic sea mammals at home on an ice floe in the Bering Sea.

In the first left corner is a large group of STELLER SEA LIONS
on St. George Island, one of the Pribilofs. ‘The male Sea Lions are
huge, powerful seals with massive necks and shoulders.

Many details of the home life of the beautiful ALASKA FUR SEALS,
on Kitovi Rookery, St. Paul’s Island, may be noted. Each vigorous,
dominant bull has his harem of sleek, slender cows, while nearby are the
bachelor bulls and the playful pups.

On the floor of the hall are several cases with special exhibits. One
of these is the TOWNSEND FUR SEAL, a species almost extinct and
only recently rediscovered after it was believed by many to have dis-
appeared completely. Another case displays several types of diving gear
with full equipment of pump, telephone, etc.

SYNOPTIC HALL OF MAMMALS

This hall, entered from the Insect Hall, chiefly illustrates various
interesting differences in the habits and structures of mammals. It also
Shows their principal orders and the main subdivisions of these, known
as families. Each family is, as far as possible, represented by a mounted
specimen and a skeleton.

Starting from the farther or western end and walking around the
room from left to right. one passes from the egg-laying Platypus to

MAMMALS 149

Man, represented by the figure of an Australian native, armed with a
boomerang.

Certain exhibits demonstrate modifications of form and structure for
various ways of locomotion, and the superiority of the brain of mammals
over that of other backboned animals. Others show albinism (white
varieties) and melanism (black varieties). Still others point out that
animals outwardly similar may be only very distantly related. How the
coat of the hare changes from brown to white and how plants and
animals adapt to a desert habitat are also illustrated.

Of special note is the SKELETON OF JUMBO, the largest elephant
ever brought to this country alive.

The FRUIT BATS, often known as FLYING FOXES, the largest
member of the bat family, and found only in the warmer parts of the
Old World, are represented by a small portion of a colony from Calapan,
Philippine Islands. Such a colony may be very destructive to bananas
and other fruits.

The most striking object in the hall is the suspended life-size model
of a SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALE, seventy-six feet long. The original
of this specimen was captured in Newfoundland and the model is
accurately reproduced from careful measurements. This species of whale
is not only the largest of living animals, but, as far as we know, the
largest animal that has ever lived. A specimen of this size would weigh
from sixty to seventy tons, twice as much as the extinct reptile BRON-
TOSAURUS. Although whales and porpoises live in the water, they are
not fishes but true mammals, since they are warm-blooded, breathe by
means of lungs, not gills, and nurse their young with milk.

MAMMALS OF NEW YORK STATE

A complete series of the living mammals which have been known to
exist within the limits of New York State is presented in the corridor
on the first floor of the Roosevelt Memorial in the neighborhood of the
elevators. ‘This exhibit includes skins and skulls of all mammals of
moderate size, models of the larger species, and cutout figures of the

whales and other large sea-animals recorded from the water around
New York.

150 MAMMALS

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|

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

Most visitors are unaware that the Museum also houses a large
laboratory devoted entirely to the study of LIVING animals. ‘This is the
Department of Animal Behavior which is located on the sixth and
seventh floors of the African Wing. Although this area of the Museum
is not open to the general public, special science groups are taken
through the laboratory when advance arrangements are made. In this
way hundreds of advanced students from New York City High Schools
as well as college classes have visited the laboratory in recent years and
for many, this was their first opportunity to see a research laboratory in
operation. ‘The staff of the Department is also available for consultation
when important problems concerning animal behavior arise.

About two decades ago, Museum authorities in their deliberations
concerning Museum policy decided that while a major function of this
institution continues to be the census, classification and structure of
animals, attention should also be paid to the relationship of the various
animals to each other and to their surroundings. Museum scientists
Should investigate and exhibit not only what animals do, but also how
and why they behave as they do. Thus the Department of Animal
Behavior was established so that specialists in the psychology and physi
ology of animals could study these aspects of natural history, and could
be available for consultation particularly in the planning of new exhibits.

Much can be learned by the scientist when he observes how animals
behave in their natural surroundings. However, this approach to animal
study has very definite limitations. It is generally difficult in a field study

151

AFRICAN MOUTHBREEDING FISH SPAWNING IN LABORATORY AQUARIUM. The
female is laying eggs in the “nest,” as the male stands by ready to fertilize them.
Within a minute after the last egg is laid and fertilized, the male will pick up
these eggs and carry them in his mouth until they develop into young fry.

A CIRCULAR COLUMN OF WORKER ARMY ANTS IN A LABORATORY NEST. Under
natural conditions, these ants carry out their daily pillaging raids on complex
systems of branching chemical trails. Excited by the presence of active larvae, the
workers in the laboratory enclosure also move incessantly, but now in a circle.
Once such an endless column is formed, the workers may run in it more or less
continuously for several days, until all are dead from dryness.

A SIMPLE TEST OF PARENTAL BEHAVIOR IN THE RING DOVE. For a considerable
part of the incubation and nesting period in this bird, the nest locality and the
nest itself are attractive to the parents, whereas eggs or young alone are not. In
this test the parent bird, removed from the nest, was presented with the young
on one side and the nest on the other. Brushing past the young without pause,
the adult returned directly to the nest and proceeded to sit in it.

to rearrange the surroundings so that a given aspect of behavior can
be studied reliably. Laboratory study offers an opportunity to follow up,
to supplement or to correct ideas developed in the field. Also many
important problems must be brought into the laboratory if they are to
be studied at all. For example, some species of fish live in water so
muddy that they can be seen only when the seine brings them to the
surface. They can be collected in the field, but their way of life remains
hidden except to laboratory study. For reasons such as these, the Depart-
ment of Animal Behavior has a laboratory designed to keep animals
alive and in good health, so that their behavior can be observed and
analyzed under suitable conditions. A large greenhouse situated on the

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR 153

roof has aquaria for warm water fishes and facilities for other tropical
animals. ‘here are flight cages and nest quarters for birds. There are
rooms with controlled lighting so that animals can be placed in reversed
daylight cycles and thus nocturnal species can be studied during the
daytime. There are special air-conditioned and heat-controlled rooms
and other means of regulating laboratory surroundings to meet the
conditions needed for each type of animal and problem.

‘The Departmental program is focused upon the important problem
of behavior development in the individual and species and upon those
types of behavior commonly referred to as “instinctive.” Physiological
mechanisms involving brain, nerves, glands, and hormones are studied
along with social factors, previous experience and finally the general
influence of an animal’s surroundings upon its behavior pattern. All of
these affect the animal’s behavior to some extent, and the question is
“how.” Somewhat as the evolution of animals is reflected in changes
from simple to more complex structures, we find among animals an
evolution of behavior from the forced movements characteristic of one-
celled forms to the elaborate behavior patterns characteristic of mammals
and man. For a proper understanding of the evolution of behavior it
is necessary to study a variety of behavior patterns in very different
animals. ‘Thus as the Departmental program progresses, living quarters
are provided for many types of animals under study, usually including
insects, fish, amphibia, birds and various species of mammals.

154 ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

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ANTHROPOLOGY

MAN AND HIS ORIGINS

Anthropology is both a natural and a social science dealing with the
complex subject of man as a physical being and also with man’s culture —
what he does and thinks.

That branch of the science concerned with man as an organism Is
known in this country as physical anthropology. ‘This includes the
evolution of man, the classification of the varieties and races of man as
he exists today and has in the past, and various aspects of human biology.

Anthropology, as a social science, has been concerned chiefly with
the development and meaning of culture. There are two principal
branches: archaeology and ethnology.

The archaeologist works with the tools, buildings, and other objects
left by ancient peoples and attempts to reconstruct the history of human
culture from the time of its origin through the many thousands of years
preceding the periods for which we have written records.

The ethnologist studies and compares the varieties of customs and
beliefs of the existing peoples of the world. Both are primarily inter-
ested in understanding the nature of human culture — that which can
be defined as the body of knowledge, beliefs, customs or ways of doing
things which are passed along from generation to generation by the
informal or formal processes of education.

Only by knowing the varied forms that the cultures of man have
attained and something of their changes throughout time can we fully
understand the unique creature whieh is man.

HALL OF PRIMATES

The Systemic Series of Primates, intended to give some idea of the
types of animals included in this order, and their range in size, form, and
color, begins on the left with examples of gorillas and chimpanzees and is

155

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THE FIRST FOUR STAGES FROM FISH TO MAN. (From water-living to land-living)

Stage 4
Primitive Ref
(Seymouria)

Stage 3
Generalized Amphibian

(Diplovertebron)

Stage 2
Lobe-Finned Fish
(Eusthenopteron)

continued in the wall cases around the room, ending with the lemurs.

Noteworthy among the primates is the gorilla, largest and most powerful
ape from Borneo; and the aye-aye

of apes; the curious ‘proboscis’

of Madagascar.
The center corridor contains groups of primates characteristic of

various parts of the world — Africa, Asia, South America and Madagascar,
and a group of human pygmies living in the forest of central Africa.
Outside of the central corridor, on the left side of the hall, is a group

of orangutans from Borneo.
At the farther end of the hall, a series of skeletons demonstrates the

comparative structure of the primates and the changes that take place

in passing from lemurs to man.

156

THE SECOND FOUR STAGES FROM FISH TO MAN. (From ground-dwelling to tree-dwelling)

ge 5 Stage 6 Stage 7 Stage 8
odont Reptile or Archaic Mammal Very Ancient Primate Primitive Anthropoid
Mammal (Cynognathus) Oppossum (Notharctus) Gibbon

HALL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN

The Hall of the Natural History of Man consists of two parts —
Introduction to Human and Comparative Anatomy, and the second
part dealing with the physical -characteristics of the Races of Man,
Development, Growth, and related topics.

The first part begins by showing MAN IN HIS COSMIC ASPECT,
with man conceived as a living engine which derives its working capital
of energy directly or indirectly from the energy of the sun stored up in
plant and animal tissue. This energy is appropriated by man in food
substances and distributed through the various anatomical systems.

In another exhibit the ELEMENTS OF THE LOCOMOTOR
APPARATUS in backboned animals are set forth. It is shown how red

ANTHROPOLOGY 157

THE TWO FINAL STAGES FROM FISH TO MAN. (On the ground again, and attainment
erect posture)

Stage 9 Stage 10
Anthropoid Ape (Chimpanzee, above; Gorilla, below) Man

muscle fibers of the fish are combined into W-shaped muscle segments or
myomeres and how the muscles of man are constructed.

Other exhibits deal with fhe anatomy of man as compared with lower
backboned animals, following the chief organ systems of the body and
the parts concerned with locomotion.

The POSITION OF MAN AMONG THE VERTEBRATES and the
evidences of his evolution from lower backboned types are shown by
comparisons of skeletal structure in living and in fossil types, and by
comparisons Of his muscle system with lower forms, as well as by com-
parative embryology. An analysis of the nervous system, and the evolution
of the human brain are dealt with, and the functions of the brain are
demonstrated.

158

The second part of the exhibit, on the right side of this hall, is
devoted to EXHIBITS ILLUSTRATING HUMAN BIOLOGY. Shown
are exhibits of the growth and development of a human embryo, skeletal
growth in the head, and the variety of physical types of man as modified
by glandular secretions. A series of full-size figures showing some of the
major racial types of man has been placed in the central alcove.

Two charts are also displayed in this alcove. One illustrates the
natural habitats of the various racial types exhibited. ‘The other depicts
the major population movements throughout the world since 1492.

At the far end of this side of the hall will be found an exhibit on some
of the more important endocrine functions.

The Skeleton from Fish to Man

The judgment of science is that our pre-human ancestors only reached
the grade of humanity after many millions of years of evolution from
lower to higher grades of life.

Owing to the enormous number and variety of organisms in nearly all
geologic ages, and to the wholesale destruction of their skeletons by
natural agencies, only a small number of the fossil forms which we have
discovered to date happen to lie in or near the direct line of ascent
from fish to man. Nevertheless, the story of the evolution of the skeleton
from fish to man is clear in its main outlines as shown in this exhibit.

The FIRST STAGE represents the earliest true fishes by a model of
a fish in the early stage of evolution of higher bony’ fishes. ‘This fish,
which breathed by gills in the normal fish way and which perhaps had a
simple air-sac or lung, must have looked something like a trout, but its
tail was more like that of a shark. The body moved forward in the water
by a wriggling movement caused by the contraction of the regularly
arranged muscle segments along either side of the body. The axis of the
body was an elastic rod called the notochord, similar to that which
appears in the embryonic stages of all higher backboned animals, in-
cluding man. The fins were composed of rays serving as keels and rudders.

The SECOND STAGE represents a long step in advance. It is based
on a fossil fish named Eusthenopteron, from the Upper Devonian of
Canada. This fish still had gills but there is some evidence that it also

possessed an air-sac or lung. It had two pairs of paddles, corresponding.

to the fore and hind limbs respectively of four-footed land animals.

The THIRD STAGE, from the Carbohiferous Age, represents the
oldest known type of four-footed animals.’ The skeleton of the hands,
feet and limbs is much more developed than in the previous stages. ‘There
are five digits on each of the hands and feet.

The FOURTH STAGE represents the primitive reptilian or lizard-
like stage from the Lower Permian of Texas. The skeleton on the whole
is not greatly different from the preceding stage, except in detail, but
the limbs are better developed.

The FIFTH STAGE represents an advanced mammal-like reptile
(Cynognathus) from the Upper Triassic of South, Africa. In this form the

ANTHROPOLOGY 159

limbs are better adapted for running, and there are many features of
the skull, backbone, and limbs that approach the condition in mammals.

For the SIXTH STAGE the skeleton of a modern opossum is used.
It retains in the main the leading characters of the skeleton of the older
fossil mammals. This form has five-toed grasping hands and feet, by
means of which it climbs about in the trees. It has kept a relatively low
type of skull, teeth, and brain.

In the SEVENTH STAGE we come to Notharctus, a form that lies
near the lower limits of the order of primates to which man belongs.
These animals were thoroughly adapted to life in the trees but they had
much larger eyes and bigger brains than any of the preceding stages.

The EIGHTH STAGE is represented by the skeleton of the gibbon,
an East Asiatic ape which is a tree-living descendant of the first family
of the tailless or man-like apes. When on the ground it is the only
existing man-like ape which normally walks on its hind legs. Its skeleton
begins to be almost human in many ways but the arms are excessively long.

The NINTH STAGE is represented by our distant cousins, the gorilla
(below) and the chimpanzee (above). These apes retain the essential
characters of fossil apes from India and South Africa, some of which
approached quite near to the oldest known fossil men. The ape brain is
much more developed than the brains of lower animals, and ape intelli-
gence at times is almost human.

In the TENTH STAGE, we see that the human skeleton is built on
the same general plan as that of the chimpanzee, gorilla, and gibbon,
but that in man the backbone, pelvis, and limbs are modified to enable
him to walk on his hind legs and to use his forelegs as arms and hands
rather than as supports. His brain is much larger and more highly
developed than in the apes.

OSBORN HALL OF THE AGE OF MAN

This hall is devoted to early man and his contemporaries, the mam-
moths and mastodons, and the giant ground sloths of South America.
The visitor learns what is known of the early history of our own race as
shown by the remains of early man and the implements he used. As fossil
remains of man are rare and usually very fragmentary, these are repre-
sented mainly by casts, but they include examples of all of the more
perfect and noteworthy specimens that have been found, from Prthecan-
thropus and Sinanthropus to NEANDERTHAL and CRO-MAGNON.

In the surrounding cases are some of the principal skeletons and
skulls of animals mostly of the Pleistocene Age (see Time Chart on
p. 51) known to have been associated with man especially in North and
South America. Skeletons and skulls on the right side of the hall show
the evolution of the Proboscidea. They fall naturally into two groups:
first, the mastodons; and second, the mammoths and elephants. In the
former division, beginning near the entrance of the hall, are the most
primitive mastodons, with two upper and two lower tusks, and a very

160

THE FAMILY TREE OF MAN. The evolution and relationships of the principal branches
of mankind and of anthropoid apes.

short proboscis. Ihe succeeding cases show the gradual reduction of the
number of teeth and the shortening of the front part of the skull for
the accommodation of the longer proboscis found in all of the later
stages of mastodons and mammoths.

On the left is a group illustrating the famous asphalt trap of Rancho
la Brea at Los Angeles, California, and fossils from South America, the
most striking of which is the group of giant ground sloths. There are
also good examples of gigantic relatives of the armadillo, the glyptodonts
or “carved-toothed” animals.

Among other strange extinct animals are the camel-like MACRAU-
CHENIA, and the rhinoceros-like TOXODON. These evolved in South
America during the Age of Mammals when it was an island continent
as Australia is today.

On the walls are mural decorations painted by Charles R. Knight,
showing the typical groups of Pleistocene animals of North and South
America and Europe that were associated with early man.

ANTHROPOLOGY 16]

In the HALL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN we see
models of various skulls, ranging from the earliest Primates of the Eocene
Period, through the monkeys and apes of the Miocene and Pliocene, to
the subhuman and human races of the Pleistocene and Recent ages.

The exhibits in the central aisle of the HALL OF THE AGE OF
MAN deal mainly with the older races of mankind as shown by their
fossil remains and by preserved fragments of their handiwork.

MEN OF THE STONE AGE. Here we see a representation of the
newly discovered Australopithecus of South Africa, a skull cast of ‘Trinil,
or Java “‘ape-man,”’ and skeletal remains or cases representing Peking
Man, Piltdown Man, Heidelberg Man, Neanderthal Man, and Cro-
Magnon Man. An excellent series of sculptured restorations of these
types, four of which are illustrated below, have been made and are
generally considered as embodying the most recent*scientific deductions
as to the general appearance of these primitive races of mankind. The
earliest of them takes man back at least to the lower Pleistocene, esti-
mated at 1,000,000 years ago.

Weapons and implements of rough and polished stone and of bone
are exhibited as evidence of the gradual building-up of human culture
through the “rough stone’ and “polished stone” ages of Man’s pre-
historic period. Reproductions of the cave paintings of Cro-Magnon
man in France and Spain show the artistic ability of the early stock
which first represents modern man in Europe.

A series of mural paintings by Charles R. Knight over the doorways
of the Hall of the Age of Man gives a vivid idea of the various races of
early man as seen by the artist in harmony with our best scientific
knowledge.

The HALL OF PREHISTORIC CULTURES on the second floor
also exhibits the early arts and industries of the European Cave Men
and Lake Dwellers, as well as North American prehistoric men.

RESTORATIONS OF HEAD AND SHOULDERS OF EARLY MAN. These restorations were made
by Professor J. M. McGregor following scientific principles and utilizing the skull-remains
of the various types as a starting point. They are as follows:

1. Trinil Ape-Man 2. Piltdown Man 3. Neanderthal Man 4. Cro-Magnon Man
(Pithecanthropus (Eoanthropus (Homo neander- (Homo sapiens cro-
erectus) dawsoni) thalensis) magnonensis)

USES OF BIRCHBARK AMONG THE EASTERN WOODLANDS INDIANS. (From a minia-
ture diorama in the Woodlands Indians Hall)

LIVING RACES OF MAN
The Woodlands Indians

Walking to the left on entering the Museum from 77th Street, we
meet first the Indians of New York and New England. ‘The successive
exhibits are so arranged that the visitor can imagine himself traveling
across the United States from east to west.

Although called the Eastern Woodlands Indians Hall (northeastern
United States and Canada), the exhibits in this hall include the South-
eastern and Mackenzie culture areas, the former joining the Eastern
Woodlands on the south, the latter on the northwest. “The whole Eastern
Woodlands area was in forest and reached westward from the Atlantic
coast to the Mississippi River. Objects on display show that these Indians
lived in the forest. The materials they used came from the forest, and
this fact influenced their houses, tools, weapons, clothing, and ornaments,
so that they are readily distinguished from those of other areas.

These forest Indians were primarily hunters and fishermen but they
also ate wild rice and maple sugar. They grew corn, beans, squash,
tobacco and other plants where the climate allowed. (See miniature
dioramas at north side of hall.) Their woodland environment led to
simple industries dependent upon the raw materials that were at hand
and adaptable to their daily needs.

Wood was used for canoes, mortars, spoons, bowls, dishes, houses and
wood splint baskets. Bark of various kinds was a favorite material. For
example, the birchbark industry is illustrated not only by a diorama but
by containers and ornaments in many of the cases. Bark like that of the
basswood tree was also shredded to make the fiber for weaving bags.

Skins were originally used for costumes, but, since the Woodlands
area was one of the first regions of North America to be influenced by
European contact, cloth was often bought from white traders. Many
wild plants and trees furnished fiber from which these Indians made
good string and cord for making fish-nets and for weaving bags. Every
well-equipped house required mats for the floor and for sleeping.

ANTHROPOLOGY 163

EASTERN WOODLANDS AGRICULTURE. A miniature diorama showing the Iroquois
Indians of New York State clearing the land and tilling the soil.

THE NATCHEZ INDIANS OF MISSISSIPPI. The Natchez were well-organized socially,
advanced in pottery making, weaving, and agriculture. The chiefs possessed
unusual powers and were carried in litters. Large temples were built upon mounds
of earth.

THE SEMINOLE INDIANS OF FLORIDA. (From a miniature diorama in the Woodlands
Indians Hall)

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wera?

Climate influences the ways of life. In this hall, the tribes represent
a range from near-Arctic Canada to sub-tropical Florida. Their clothing
varies from fur garments among the Dene and the Cree, to thin dresses
of commercial cloth among the Seminole.

A number of miniature groups along the side walls and in the cases
show tribal costumes, housing and industries. Especially interesting sub-
jects are rock shelters, the making of rabbit skin clothing, weaving with
basswood fiber, making a false face, and the stages by which corn is
made into bread.

Travel was on foot. Dugout or bark canoes were used in summer
where streams or lakes were accessible. Snowshoes were used in winter,
and in the north the toboggan was common.

The dwellings of this area are of several forms. Among these are the
long rectangular houses of the Iroquois covered with oak bark, the
dome-shaped huts of Long Island and vicinity which were covered with
mats and bundles of grass, and the familiar cone-shaped wigwam of the
Ojibway covered with birchbark. The utensils are of pottery, wood or
birchbark. Pottery was made by most of the Eastern tribes and seems
to be associated with farming. The designs are cut in, cord-marked, or
paddle-stamped, but never painted.

Bowls, trays and spoons are made of wood and are often decorated
with animal carvings. The use of birchbark in making light househoid
vessels is one of the particular traits of our Eastern Indians.

These Indians invented canoes, maple sugar, tobacco pipes, cornhusk
weaving, splint baskets, tump-lines or devices for carrying heavy loads,
wampum, the game of la crosse, netted snowshoes, the toboggan and
the water-drum.

The Indians’ history begins with the landing of white men. Many
of the objects shown in the cases are historic, but others, such as the
stone, bone and shell objects found in the ground, are usually prehistoric.
In the exhibits dealing with Manhattan and Staten Island, from which
the Indians were driven by the first settlers, we can show nothing but
pottery, stone, bone and shell objects. These local relics will be found
near the entrance to the hall. On the left are some pottery vessels and
many small objects made of stone and bone from Manhattan Island,
Staten Island, Long Island, and Westchester County. Nearby, on the
same side of the hall, are collections obtained from living Indians of
the coast region north and south of New York. These are the Penobscot
and Passamaquoddy of Maine, the Micmac and Malecite of the lower
provinces of Canada, and a few rare objects from the Delaware who
once occupied the vicinity of New York City and the State of New Jersey.
The age and historical relations of these cultures are shown in a large
label at the left of the entrance.

A family group of Micmac Indians, in a birchbark cone-shaped house,
is shown half way down the hall.

On the opposite side are the Iroquois, whose league included the
Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and later the Tuscarora.

ANTHROPOLOGY 165

They dominated New York and much adjoining territory. The exhibits
represent particularly the agriculture of the East, which was carried on
with rude tools by the women.

In the farther end of the hall, on the left, are the collections from the
Ojibway, who lived mainly north of the Great Lakes. They had but
little agriculture, living chiefly by hunting and fishing and the gathering
of wild rice. Beyond the Ojibway are the Cree, who lived farther north.

Opposite the Ojibway are the great Central Algonkin tribes, the
Menomini and Sauk and Fox, as well as the Siouan Winnebago, who
lived south and west of the Great Lakes. They too gathered wild rice and
hunted and fished and also did some farming.

In the southeastern portion of the United States, agriculture was
highly developed. These tribes are represented by the Cherokee and
Yuchi, who made pottery, and by the Choctaw and Chitimacha, who made
fine baskets of cane as well. The Seminole of Florida, though long in-
fluenced by the white man, have maintained an independent existence in
the Everglades for nearly a hundred years. Their prehistoric arts are
illustrated in the table case. They excelled in polishing stones and work-
ing shell. (See the diorama on the north wall.)

The Plains Indians

When we think of Plains Indian life, we think of such terms as “tipi,”
“buffalo,” “horse,” and large decorated “pipes.” The tipi and the pipe
are especially conspicuous in the center of the hall.

The art of these Indians is highly original and popular. Painting
on skin is the usual method, but many designs in beadwork and quills
are shown.

Artists look upon the feather headdress of these Indians as the most
beautiful type of headdress to be found anywhere in the world. With
this and his highly decorated costume, the Plains Indian is a colorful
figure.

Indians of the Plains made up the tribes living west of the Mississippi
and east of the Rocky Mountains as far south as the valley of the Rio
Grande and as far north as the Saskatchewan.

Beginning on the left, the buffalo-hunting tribes: the Plains-Cree,
Dakota, Crow, Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, Arapaho and Cheyenne, occupy
the greater part of the hall. These tribes did not farm but depended
almost entirely on the buffalo. They ate the buffalo and used its skin
to make their clothing. Sometimes a buffalo paunch was used for cooking,
and horns were made into various tools and weapons. The spirit of the
buffalo was thought to be a powerful ally and was called upon to cure
sickness, to ward off evil, and to give aid in the hunt. Wherever the
buffalo herds led the way, the more nomadic Plains tribes moved their
tipis and followed. When most of the buffalo were wiped out, the entire
life of the Plains Indians was revolutionized.

On the right, near the entrance, are the village tribes of the Plains:
the Mandan, with whom Lewis and Clark passed the winter of 1804-1805;

166

A DAKOTA WARRIOR. A DAKOTA WOMAN.
(Model in Plains Indians Hall) (Model in Plains Indians Hall)

the Hidasta, who now live with them; and the Omaha, Kansa, Iowa,
and Pawnee. All these tribes raised corn and lived in large earth-covered
houses. A small model of one of these houses stands near the exhibits.

In the center of this hall is a Blackfoot Indian tipi with paintings
of otters on the sides, representing a vision of the owner. This tipi has
been fitted up to show the home life of a typical buffalo-hunting Indian.

There were numerous soldier societies among the Plains Indians
which included practically all the adult males. Each society had a special
dance and special costumes. (See the Arapaho cases for costumes of
dancers.) There were other dances connected with tribal religious cere-
monials, the best known and most important of which is the Sun Dance,
shown by a model at the left of the tipi. The Sun Dance was held yearly

ANTHROPOLOGY 167

A BLACKFOOT INDIAN TIPI. The interior has been furnished with full scale models
showing typical Plains Indian life of the nineteenth century.

AN HIDATSA EARTHLODGE. A section of this model has been cut away to show the
interior. Houses of this type were used formerly by most of the semi-agricultural
tribes of the Plains.

in the early summer to keep a vow made the winter before by some
member of the tribe who wished a sick relative to recover. ‘The dance
involved self-torture, great physical endurance and a fast lasting three
days.

In the center of the hall is a medicine pipe, held in awe by the Indians
and dearly parted with; also the contents of a medicine bundle. ‘The
contents of another medicine bundle, belonging to a leading medicine
man of the Blackfoot tribe, together with the headdress which he wore in
ceremonies, are in a case near the tower. Other remarkable bundles,
particularly the skull bundle, are in the Pawnee case on the north wall.

The Plains Indians are noted for their painted buffalo robes and for
their quillwork,. which was superseded by beadwork when glass beads
became available in historical times. They have a highly developed
decorative art in which simple geometric designs are the elements of
composition. This is one of the most interesting features of their art.
(See Dakota case.)

Indians of the Southwest

This region is famous for two reasons: its picturesque living Indian
tribes, and the large number of ruins built by prehistoric Indians. Since
many of the latter are placed upon high rocks or in the walls of canyons,
they are spoken of as Cliff Dwellings.

This hall presents collections from both the prehistoric and the living
Indians of the Southwest. On the right are the nomadic or wandering
tribes: the Apache, Navajo, Pima, Papago, and Havasupal. A life-size
exhibit, the first of a series along the right-hand wall, shows the home
life of the San Carlos Apache. Next is a larger group showing a Navajo
hogan in Canyon de Chelly, and the Night Chant ceremony. The painted
background of this group gives a view of the canyon, and in a cave of its
walls one may see the famous White House ruins.

Navajo silverwork and blankets are shown in nearby cases. The
Navajo are the modern blanket makers. They card, spin and weave
the wool of the sheep they raise with simple implements and looms. ‘This
art has arisen since the coming of the Spaniards and it is known to have
passed through several stages in the last sixty years. Some of the older
types of blankets shown here contain yarn which was gotten by cutting
or raveling from imported flannels, called in Spanish “‘bayeta,” from
which these blankets get their name. These are either bright red or old
rose in color, resulting from cochineal dye. Several blankets are made
of yarn bought ready-dyed from traders and are called Germantowns.
The greater number, however, are made of yarn of native spinning,
dyed with native vegetable and mineral dyes.

The Navajo are a large and widely scattered tribe. During the winter
they live in log houses, but in milder weather they camp in the slight
shelter of a cliff or windbreak and shade made of brush. They live by
raising corn in the moist valleys, and on the flesh of their many flocks
of sheep.

ANTHROPOLOGY 1469

The Western Apache live along the upper portion of the Gila and
Salt Rivers, where they farm, gather natural products and hunt. Indians
related to these, under Geronimo, raided the settlements of southern
Arizona and northern Mexico and evaded our troops for years. They
live in grass-thatched houses or in the open under the shade of flat-topped
opened-sided shelters.

The Eastern Apache lived in buffalo skin tipis. They went far out
on the plains in search of the herds, avoiding, if possible, the Plains
tribes, but fighting them with vigor when necessary. In dress and out-
ward life they resemble the Plains Indians, but in their legends and
ceremonies they are like their Southwestern relatives and neighbors.

In the first alcove to the right of the entrance is a basketry exhibit
showing the types of baskets and the materials, tools, and techniques
used by the Southwestern tribes. This exhibit is in contrast with the
corresponding case of pottery on the opposite side. Not the environment,
but social habits, caused one people to develop pottery and the other to
make the easily carried and not easily breakable baskets.

At the left of the hall, as we enter, are exhibits for the modern village
Indians — first types of pottery from San Ildefonso, Laguna, Santo
Domingo, Zuni, and Hopi.

A NAVAJO MEDICINE LODGE. For the celebration of the Navajo Night Chant a
special house is erected. The medicine man is laying down an elaborate ceremonial
sand-painting. Group in Southwest Indian Hall.

HOPI SNAKE DANCE. This is given on alternate years by the Snake and Antelope
priests in all but two of the Hopi villages to insure the rain needed for the crops.
(From a miniature diorama in the Southwest Indian Hall)

The Pueblo Indians live in large community houses, built of stone
or adobe, often with several stepped-back stories. ‘They depend chiefly
on farming for their food, make a great variety of pottery, and have many
elaborate religious ceremonies. The nomadic peoples live in tipis or
small brush and thatched houses which are moved or deserted when
they are forced to seek the wild game and wild vegetable products which
furnish much of their food. ‘They make baskets for household purposes
which are more easily carried than vessels of clay. In the hall are models
of the pueblos of Taos and Acoma, of prehistoric cliff-dwellings, and of
the houses used by the Navajo.

The inhabitants of Zuni are believed to be the descendants of the
first people seen by the Spaniards in 1540. Their former villages, many
of which are now in ruins, were probably the “Seven Cities of Cibola,”
for which Coronado was looking at that time. Although there were
missionaries among them for about three hundred years, they have kept
many of their own religious ceremonies. Many ceremonial objects, as
well as those of everyday life, are shown in this alcove.

In the Hopi section are costumes, masks, images, and basketry plaques
used in their ceremonies. ‘Their best known ceremony is the Snake
Dance, supposed to increase rainfall and the crops. Some of the regalia
worn for the Snake Dance are shown, as well as a small model of a single
phase of the ceremony. In the center of the hall a table case shows a
Hopi altar, of the type that figures in nearly all Hopi ceremonies.

In the center of the hall, as well as in the farther half of the left side.
are special exhibits for the prehistoric Indians of the Southwest. Near
the center is an exhibit showing how many prehistoric ruins have been
dated by the tree-ring method. A chart at the entrance to the hall gives
the successive culture periods for the Southwest, beginning with early
Basket Makers and ending with the modern Pueblo villages. Typical
objects made by the Basket Makers are shown in small cases in the center
of the hall and in upright cases to the left.

ANTHROPOLOGY 171

Two of the most famous prehistoric Southwestern ruins are Bonito
and Aztec. A model of the latter stands in the center, and near the
entrance is an exhibit of turquoise from Pueblo Bonito. Other collections
from these two ruins are shown in cases at the left of the hall. One con-
tains a remarkable collection of pottery from Pueblo Bonito. Similar
black-on-white wares with very elaborate and splendidly executed designs,
shown in adjacent cases, are from Rio ‘Tularosa, and in part from cliff-
dwellings. In another case is found material gathered by the Museum
expedition which explored the Galisteo Valley, New Mexico.

Other exhibits in this area illustrate the culture of the living Indians
of California. Most outstanding of the achievements of these tribes was
their basketry, some examples of which are among the finest produced
in the world.

Indians of the North Pacific Coast

The Jesup North Pacific Hall is devoted to the Indians living in the
heavily forested and mountainous coastal belt extending from the
Columbia River in Washington to Mt. St. Elias in southern Alaska, as
well as on the offshore islands. ‘They are the most skillful wood workers
on the American continent, as shown by the models of their houses; their
intricately carved and painted totem, house, and grave posts; their cere-
monial masks, boxes, implements, and tools. ‘They depended on their
forest environment for housing, clothing, and utensils and they depended
on the products of the sea for food. ‘Travel and transportation were
mainly by water and they skillfully hollowed out giant cedar logs for
canoes like the large Haida war canoe in the center of the hall.

MODEL OF A KWAKIUTL VILLAGE, VANCOUVER ISLAND, showing plank houses
facing the sea with canoes drawn up on the shore. Crests of the owners are
painted on the walls of houses and carved on the house posts in front.

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A PIPE

carved in the form of
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Tlingit Indians

of Alaska.

Except for two tribes, the Shuswap and Thompson, who live in the
interior of British Columbia, the exhibits are arranged in the order in
which the various tribes are encountered in going from south to north
along the coast of Washington, British Columbia, and Alaska. On the
right side of the hall are the Bella Coola, Tsimshian, Haida; on the left,
the Nootka, Kwakiutl, Tlingit.

‘The murals of Will S. Taylor depict not only the industries, religious
and social life of these Indians, but also their heavily forested and fog-
and-rain-drenched environment. The murals on the right side show
ceremonials and religious life. On the left they show daily life and
industries. Games are illustrated over the entrance and at the farther
end of the hall, the return of a victorious war party.

They were also skilled in weaving with mountain goat wool and
shredded bark and in making baskets. Notice the Chilkat ceremonial
blankets a little over halfway along the hall, on the left, and the Tlingit
baskets at the end. These Indians have likewise distinguished themselves
in the carving of stone, bone, and ivory, examples of which are shown
for the various tribal groups.

Outstanding perhaps is the wealth of decoration seen on all their
products. The typical grotesque art motifs, based on the distortion of
animal forms, are found in equal abundance on useful and ceremonial
objects.

ANTHROPOLOGY 173

ESKIMO WOMAN FISHING THROUGH THE ICE. (Group in the Eskime Hall)

MODEL OF AN ESKIMO WINTER HOUSE, CUMBERLAND SOUND. The side of one
house has been cut away to show interior. Outside are the dogs, dog sled, and
the storage racks for meat.

Eskimo

The Eskimo are often named as the primitive people who have made
the most complete adjustment to their environment. They inhabit the
northern shores and neighboring islands of North America, from eastern-
most Siberia and the Aleutians to East Greenland and Labrador. All
these Eskimo, who differ somewhat in details of culture according to
locality, are represented here, though not with equal completeness.

Contact with the white man has changed the Eskimo’s way of life,
but he continues to use many of his traditional tools, implements and
distinctive articles of fur clothing. The Eskimo are hunters and fisher-
men. In summer they hunt the caribou, musk ox and birds, often inland.
Their dwellings at this season are tent-like frames covered with caribou
or seal skin.

In winter they hunt sea mammals, especially seals. Their winter
houses are of stone built over shallow excavations and are covered with
earth. Ihe familiar snow house is the traditional winter dwelling of
certain tribes but is unknown in Alaska and in most of Greenland.
Models on exhibit show how the snow house is built. “The Eskimo are
skilled in the making of fur clothing and skin boats. The clever imple-
ments they make of wood, bone and ivory are often decorated with
naturalistic cut-in designs. Many of the objects shown here are from the
collections made by the Peary, Comer, MacMillan, and the Stefansson-
Anderson expeditions.

Near the entrance of the corridor is an Eskimo woman fishing through
the ice. She has made a windbreak with ice blocks. The fishing rod and
hook and the long ladle are made of bone. She keeps the water from
freezing while she is fishing by using the ladle to break and remove ice.
In another case an Eskimo woman is cooking inside a snow hut that is
lined with seal skin. She is using a stone lamp filled with seal oil which
provides the flame for her cooking.

ANTHROPOLOGY 175

Indians of Mexico and Central America

At the west stairway on the second floor, we enter an alcove and a
hall devoted to the ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central America.
The alcove contains a series of small dioramas showing the varieties of
climate and landscape in Middle America, a large series of gold and
jade objects, and pottery vessels typical of several of the culture areas
into which Middle America can be divided.

Entering the central part of the main hall, one faces a cast of a
gigantic stone head of the Olmec culture. Along the sides of the central
portion are reproductions of some of the great carved monuments of
the Maya sites of Copan and Quirigua, and a series of cases containing a
number of the more beautiful objects in the Museum’s collections.

Four of the alcoves along the right side of the hall are given over to
each of the four major cultural periods in the history of the Valley of
Mexico, the others to the Central Vera Cruz area, the Huastec area, the
Maya, and the cultures of El Salvador and Costa Rica.

The left side of the hall deals with Western and Northern Mexico,
with the cultures of Oaxaca and with a number of the major sculptured
monuments of the Aztec of Central Mexico. The far end of the hall is
Mayan, with several models of Maya buildings and two large cases

AZTEC CORN GODDESS. This outstanding
example of Aztec stone sculpture is notable
for its simple naturalistic presentation. It
was found in Ixtapalapa, a town near
Mexico City.

OLMEC STYLE CEREMONIAL AXE IN
GREEN JADE. One of the largest and
finest Olmec jades known, this is one
of the great treasufes of the Middle
American collection.

containing examples of Maya sculptures. These original pieces are from
Copan and from Northern Yucatan, the latter being all that remain from
a collection made by John Lloyd Stephens, the “discoverer” of the Maya
civilization early in the last century.

The walls and landings of the west stairway between the first and
third floors exhibit reproductions of various Maya and Central American
sculptures.

CULTURES REPRESENTED: The material represented in this hall
shows the history and cultural accomplishments of some of the more
civilized peoples of the New World, sometimes referred to as those of
Middle America or Mesoamerica. Within this area there were many
local cultures, but all of them had characteristics in common which set
them off as a unit distinct from the somewhat less highly developed cul-
tures of North America, and both the lesser and higher cultures of South
America. Several distinctive features of the Middle American cultures
are the use of lime mortar in building and the existence of complex
calendar systems and hieroglyphic or picture writing.

The higher Middle American cultures lasted for a period of nearly
3,000 years, so time is an important factor in any consideration of them.
The following basic time schedule is generally applied:

15,000 B.C.-1,000 B.C. — Period of Early Man. Only meager remains
of this earliest period have yet been discovered in Middle America,
most important being the skeleton of Tepexpan Man, estimated to
date from 10,000 B.C. No materials from this period are on exhibit.
1,000 B.C.-1 A.D. — Pre-Classic Period. Variously known as the

ANTHROPOLOGY 177

Archaic or Middle Culture Period, this is represented by peoples living
in permanent villages depending on farming, but without the great
cer¢monial buildings of later periods. Pottery-making and sculpture
in ¢lay were important.

1 A.D.-900 A.D. — Classic Period. This is the great period of Middle
American civilization, taking in the so-called Old Empire of the
Maya and the ‘Teotihuacan, Zapotec, and ‘Totonac cultures of Mexico
proper. It is the period of the great cities and many of the sculptured
monuments shown in the hall.

900 A.D.-1520 A.D. — Post-Classic Period. With the close of the
Classic Period, new and seemingly more militaristic orders were estab-
lished, represented by the New Empire or Mexican Period in Yucatan
and by the succeeding Toltec and Aztec dominations of Central
Mexico. ‘The period ends with Cortez’s conquest of Mexico and the
almost complete destruction of the native cultures.

SCALE MODEL OF MAYA TEMPLE. The temple on top of a high pyramid at Tikal,
Guatemala, is shown here in miniature. This is one of a number of architectural
models on display.

GOLD LIP PLUG. This extraordinarily
fine ornament is attributed to the
Mixtec culture of Oaxaca in southern
Mexico.

NATURE OF OBJECTS. It is impossible to present a well-rounded
picture of the ancient Middle American civilizations, for, with rare
exceptions, it is only the more lasting objects of pottery, stone, bone,
shell and metal that have survived the destructive action of time and
weather. Such things as the wooden drums of the Aztec are therefore
great treasures. However, in our attempt to understand the life of
ancient Middle America, we can rely heavily on the small number of
native manuscripts in picture-writing that have been preserved and on
the remarkably full accounts of native life written by the early Spaniards.

ARCHITECTURE. The varied and imposing architecture of Middle
America may be seen in the models and illustrations distributed around
the hall. The buildings preserved are either temple structures built
on pyramid-like platforms or are thought to be housing for the priests
or persons concerned with the elaborate religious ceremonies. Ornate
tombs are also important, the full-sized reproduction of one at Monte
Alban being a good example of this architectural form. Little remains,
and nothing is shown, of the ordinary living quarters, as these were
apparently of wood or thatch, similar to those in use at the present
time and just as impermanent.

SCULPTURE. It is in sculpture that we may best measure the tre-
mendous attainments of the ancient peoples of Middle America. ‘Their
religions with their many gods required many images shown in a great
variety of human and animal forms. These are often grotesque and
hard for us to appreciate, but they are usually conceived according to
universally accepted standards of beauty and high artistic quality. An
early and important style is that seen in the Olmec sculptures, which
range from the most delicate of jade carvings to the colossal stone head
from southern Vera Cruz, mounted in the center of the hall. In the
Olmec style, the human figure is presented with a suggestion of Negroid
features, aften in combination with those of the jaguar, an animal that

ANTHROPOLOGY 179

played an important role in the symbolism of the early cultures. It is
curious that the Olmec carvers. who seem to represent one of the earliest
of the high cultures of Middle America, were the greatest masters in the
carving of jade and produced sculptural forms most readily appreciated
by us.

Maya sculpture is more complex and appears to reflect an involved
religious belief and ritual. The great skill of the native sculptors is
apparent in the Copan and Quirigua stelae or tall stone slabs, where
intricate detail is combined with the handling of enormous masses. Our
respect for these ancient peoples is further increased when we realize that
these great works were done without the benefit of metal tools.

Many and varied figures in baked clay also show a great technical
and artistic ability. Especially interesting is the historical series of
figurines from the Pre-Classic and ‘TVeotihuacan horizons of the Valley of
Mexico. ‘The succession of styles has been used by the archaeologist as
a sensitive marker of culture change.

WRITING AND THE CALENDAR. The highest developments of the
art of writing in the New World were attained by the Maya. A number

THE GOD XIPE-TOTEC. This life-sized image of terra cotta shows the wearing of
the skin of a sacrificial victim. From near Texcoco, across the lake from Mexico
City, the figure dates from the Toltec period.

MAYA CORN GOD. From the great Maya center of Copan, Honduras, this life-size
stone figure is certainly one of the great masterpieces of Maya sculpture. It dates
from the latter half of the Classic Period when Maya art and architecture saw its
highest development.

of examples of their picture-writing are found on the reproductions of
the stelae and on other objects in the hall. A major portion of these
texts concerns the statement of dates in the elaborate calendrical system
brought to highest perfection by the Maya, but also used by the Zapotec,
Aztec and other groups. However, most of the non-calendrical parts of
the Maya texts remain undeciphered. Both the Maya and the Mexican
peoples also painted their hieroglyphics in books of paper or leather
known as codices. Only a few still remain from Pre-Conquest times.

POTTERY. Vessels of baked clay are abundant in all collections from
prehistoric sites in Mexico. Their interest is two-fold, in giving us a
knowledge of the daily life of the native peoples and as one of the
most important measuring devices in the study of the history of our

ANTHROPOLOGY 181

OLMEC WOODEN MASK. This is a unique specimen, being the only wooden object
known from the Olmec culture. The sensitive scuipturing of the mouth portion is
partly hidden by several remaining pieces of a jade mosaic and by a gummy
substance used to hold the mosaic in place.

area. ‘The modern archaeologist relies to a large extent on the broken
pottery found in the kitchen middens or refuse heaps of living sites. By
carefully excavating and analyzing the changes in pottery types from
the lower to the higher levels in these refuse heaps, he is able to estimate
the changes of styles and of peoples through time and from area to area.
An example of this method of reading history by examination of pottery
layers is shown in the Huastec alcove on the right side of the hall.

METALS. The use of metals appeared late in Middle American history
—at the beginning of the Post-Classic Period. ‘The techniques of metal-
working occur much earlier in South America and it is assumed that
these arts were diffused northward into Middle America. Nevertheless,
the gold-work of Mexico is considered to be of higher technical and
artistic quality than any other in the New World.

JADE. Various kinds of semi-precious stones were used in Middle
America for ornament or insignia, but jade was the substance most
highly prized. The Middle American jades are classified as jadeite, but
are distinct from the Asiatic types. Several styles of jade carving are
recognized, the finest being those of the Olmec and the Maya, of which
outstanding examples are to be seen in the alcove to the left of the
entrance to the main hall.

182 ANTHROPOLOGY

CAST OF OLMEC STONE HEAD. The original of this gigantic stone head lies in the
jungle in southern Vera Cruz at the Olmec site of San Lorenzo. It is nine feet in
height and weighs an estimated 15 tons.

CARVED SLATE MIRROR BACK.
The elegant design and the
curvilinear motifs around the
edge of the disc place this piece
in the so-called Tajin culture

of central Vera Cruz. It is
probably late Classic in date.

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MAYA POTTERY BOWL
WITH CARVED DECORATION.
A fine vessel from

northern Yucatan dating
from late in the

Classic Period.

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MUSICAL WIND INSTRUMENTS OF ANCIENT PERU. The wind instruments of the
ancient inhabitants of Peru, as illustrated above, included the panpipe or syrinx
shown in the center; resonator whistles (left); trumpets of clay and wood; and a
great variety of simple whistles. The pottery figure at lower left shows how the
panpipe was played.

Indians of South America

This hall contains Indian exhibits from all the South American
countries except Uruguay. The largest portion of the exhibits illustrates
the prehistory of the peoples of Peru and Bolivia and is arranged in
the front of the hall.

Unlike the ancient peoples of Mexico and Central America, the
Peruvians had no written language. They were tillers of the soil and
raised potatoes, Oca, quinoa, beans, coca and cotton. They domesticated
the llama as a beast of burden and the alpaca as a source of wool. They
excelled in the manufacture and decoration of pottery vessels, in metal
work and in textiles.

Their gold and silver objects, such as beads, cups, pins, plates and
ear ornaments, show a high degree of skill in the beating, soldering and
casting of metals.

In weaving, the Peruvians were perhaps first among prehistoric peoples
of the world, many of their textiles shown here being unsurpassed to

ANTHROPOLOGY 185

the present day. The materials used were cotton and the wool of the
llama, alpaca and vicuna. In the cases near the entrance are examples
of these textiles and the fibers, spindles, threads, looms and other equip-
ment used in their manufacture. At the center of the hall are beautiful
examples of fabrics decorated with feathers. Some of the costumes in
use at the time of the Conquest are displayed at the right of the entrance
hall. To the left are complex embroideries made by the people of
Paracas before the beginning of the Christian era.

On the right side of the hall are collections from important localities
in Peru, followed by exhibits from Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil
and Panama. In Case 57, near the center of the hall, selected pieces
of pottery show the different forms and decorations which distinguish
the various important cultures of Peru and Bolivia. As far as our present
knowledge permits, the changes which occurred in the course of time are
also indicated. Each of these cultures is shown in greater detail in
individual cases.

Outstanding is the beautiful work of the Nazca people who excelled
among all American potters in their use of color. This display is
arranged to show the wide representation of mythological creatures, birds
and animals, with one section devoted to the differences which dis-
tinguished two separate traditions in their motifs.

POTTERY OF THE MOCHICA OR EARLY CHIMU PERIOD. A warrior in full regalia is
depicted on the vessel at the left. In his right hand he holds a mace; in his left,
a shield, spear thrower, and javelins. The central piece is a “portrait” jar. The
vessel at the right shows a hand to hand combat between mythical beings.

NAZCA POTTERY. By far the most skillful use of color in Peruvian ceramics is seen
en such specimens as these. As some of the mythological beings depicted also
appear on earlier Paracas embroideries a cultural continuity of the two periods
is indicated.

A SECTION OF EMBROIDERED MANTLE, PARACAS PERIOD, PERU. Possibly 2000 years
old, Paracas embroideries are famous for the intricate use of rich colors in strange
designs and figures. Trophy heads, frequently portrayed, are seen here pendant
on the staffs held over the shoulder.

ANTHROPOLOGY 187

cA A PERUVIAN WOMAN’S WORK BAS-
ipa a pda ines Mijyryy y is a Containing carded fiber, spin-
dles, bobbins, and other equipment
for spinning and weaving.

PARACAS EMBROIDERY. A fine example of highly conventionalized treatment of
a cat figure.

¢ . es yy ie aed ih sen y “is 3 ee he ef ‘
et fae ey Ais eh $e Lae ae? pe es lias ; pr’ Mal, Ms he vee

A PERUVIAN TAPESTRY. An excellent tapestry from Pachacamac, Peru, with slits
left open between color areas as part of the design.

In special exhibits are grouped such things as musical instruments,
whistling water jars, examples of intentionally deformed human heads
and trephined skulls showing the successful practice of a delicate surgical
operation by the ancient Peruvians.

Much of our knowledge of their daily life we owe to a fortunate com-
bination of climatic conditions and tribal customs. Along the coast of
Peru, where the extreme dryness of the climate has preserved perishable
materials for centuries, are more extensive burial places than anywhere
else in America. Countless thousands of bodies were buried with such
things as had been most useful and prized during life or were considered
to be most serviceable in a future life. Examples of these mummy bundles
are displayed, and it was from such as these that many objects in the
hall were obtained.

The mummy in the case at the west side of the room was found in
a copper mine at Chuquicamata, Chile. The body is that of an Indian
miner who was killed by the falling of rocks and earth while he was
getting out the copper ore (atacamite) used by the Indians in making
implements and ornaments in prehistoric times. The tissues of the body

ANTHROPOLOGY 189

MODEL OF ALACALUF HUT. Used by
nomadic fishermen in southern Chile,
this type of shelter is well suited to
the ceol, rainy environment. The
floor plan of these huts is oval, about
13 by 8 feet, with a fireplace in
the center between the two en-
trances. Sea lion skins serve as cov-
ering.

have been preserved by copper salts with which they are impregnated.
The tools he was using at the time of his death are lying beside him in
the case.

Much more primitive than any of the prehistoric people just men-
tioned were the nomadic hunters and fishermen who lived in the southern
end of the continent and the neighboring islands. Their story from the
time when they hunted the extinct native American horses and ground
sloths, about nine to ten thousand years ago, was recovered from caves
and shell mounds. The simple tools and weapons they used are arranged
in time-order in a case in the rear of the hall. Near by are examples
of the equipment of the various tribes still living in the same region
at the present time.

In neighboring cases are exhibits for other living Indians of South
America. As there are a great many distinct tribes, sometimes living in
| widely different geographical areas, the collection is far from complete.
| An example of native life in the tropical rain forest of northeastern

Peru is shown in a miniature group of the Montana Indians. They raise
plantains and cassava and hunt small game, so their equipment is
) | naturally specialized for these occupations. This latter exhibit is tem-
porarily on display in the MEN OF MONTANA HALL: a temporary
| exhibit hall.
|

The Pacific

Two halls are devoted to the peoples of the Pacific Islands and of
Australia. The first, SOUTH PACIFIC HALL, contains collections
from Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, New Guinea and Australia.
Polynesia, as represented by the Maori of New Zealand, extends into
the second hall, which is principally devoted to exhibits from the Philip-
pine Islands, small special exhibits from New Guinea, and special col-
lections from Java, Sumatra and Borneo.
| The most conspicuous objects in these halls are the Easter Island
statue, the models of Tahitian and Philippine life, including a Philippine
tree house, the collection of tattooed heads from New Zealand, and the
collection of masks from New Ireland.

i 190 ANTHROPOLOGY

EASTER ISLAND STATUE. Easter Island, in the South Pacific, is famous for the immense
stone statues found there, from one of which a Museum expedition made the cast
here illustrated.

On entering the South Pacific Hall, beyond the Hall of Minerals, the
visitor sees a huge stone face, a cast of one of the famous Easter Island
statues. This was brought back in 1935 by the Templeton Crocker
Expedition. These statues are unique to Easter Island. They were found
set on stone platforms all around the island. Their origin and exact
meaning are unknown.

Directly in the center of the hall is a Tahitian priest taking part in
the fire-walking ceremony, in which the participants walk over heated
lava boulders. On each side is a group showing natives engaged in
typical activities — grating coconut, preparing kava or plaiting pandanus.

Just behind the Easter Island statue is a fine Hawaiian feather cape,
such as was formerly worn by the highest ranks of the Hawaiian society.
Red and yellow honeysucker feathers, which were collected as taxes,
were fastened on a netted twine foundation. The value of these garments
depended on the enormous Jabor spent on their making.

The hall is roughly divided into two main sections. In the first
half are shown the collections from Polynesia and Micronesia, while the
second half is given over to New Guinea, Melanesia and Australia. How-
ever, it proved impossible to be wholly consistent and to separate Mela-
nesian Fiji from Samoa and Tonga.

In the POLYNESIAN section, the examples of decorated native bark
cloth (tapa) are especially noteworthy, and a number of canoe models
remind us that these people are daring seafarers. A series of ceremonial
adzes from the Cook Islands in the farther quarter of the hall shows
aboriginal carving at its best.

In the section on the right, the elaborately carved sacred masks, about
14 feet back of the Tahitian fire-walker, illustrate the type of carving
characteristic of the Melanesians of New Ireland as do the two delicately
carved poles against the west wall.

Another beautiful and distinctive style is found in the carvings of

POLYNESIAN BARK CLOTH OR TAPA. This cloth was made from the inner bark of
the paper-mulberry tree which is steeped in water, thinned out with a shell
scraper, and pounded on a board with a mallet. Designs may be painted on the
cloth free-hand, but more frequently they are printed from wooden stamps.

A SECTION OF A MANUS (ADMIRALTY ISLANDS) VILLAGE, reconstructed with scien-
tific accuracy in every detail; one of many miniature models in the American
Museum showing native home life and activities.

the Maori of New Zealand, where a spiral motif is dominant. The series
of dried and tattooed heads forms one of the most remarkable exhibits
in the Museum.

Near the boundary between the two main sections are the AUSTRA-
LIAN cases with numerous boomerangs and very crude stone tools,
which should be compared with those in the archaeological hall. ‘The
farther corner contains a collection from the Admiralty Islands, includ-
ing a model of a village of the Manus tribe, a lagoon-dwelling, fishing
people who build their houses on piles far from land. In the right
corner of the hall are shields, clubs, carvings and household utensils
from New Guinea.

The islands of the Pacific Ocean may be divided into two types: the
high islands which represent remnants of sunken land masses or else the
result of volcanic action, and the second variety consisting of low coral
atolls rising not much more than 20 or 25 feet above the sea. ‘The en-
vironments that these islands provide for their inhabitants are strikingly
different and have affected the kind of life they are able to lead.

The high islands are, for the most part, fertile and well covered with
a variety of vegetation. The coral atolls have little or no soil and support
a very thin plant life. Although both high and low islands occur in
various parts of the Pacific, there are two principal areas where the coral
atolls are specially concentrated: one is in Micronesia and the other in
the Tuamotu chain of Eastern Polynesia.

‘The people who live in these various islands belong to a number of
different stocks. The Polynesians occupy the easternmost islands and

ANTHROPOLOGY 193

= er

a Ee eee - Ore

MASK. TCHAMBULI,
SEPIK DISTRICT,
NEW GUINEA.

nS TA

oa uy

es 9 tet > gl
A « ih
Cy

Im,

MUNDUGUMOR, NEV
known a

These flutes,
crocodile spirit children, are so heavy

SACRED FLUTE,
GUINEA.

CARVED WOODEN HOOK
USED IN DECORATING
MEN’S HOUSES IN
TCHAMBULI, NEW GUINEA.

ily encrusted with shells that the

are non-functional.

Left, CARVED HOOK, TCHAMBULI, NEW GUINEA. Right, WAR CHARM, made by the
people of Pak in the Admiralty Islands. It is worn on the back, and it is believed
that when a man is slow in going into battle the charm scratches his back and
urges him on.

differ significantly from the dark-skinned, frizzly-haired people of Mela-
nesia on the one hand and from the short, more Mongoloid type found
in the Micronesian islands.

Culturally, these three major island groupings also show differences
that suggest, to a large extent, independent histories. “he Polynesians
manufacture bark cloth and matting, have no pottery, drink kava, fight
with clubs, and are skilled navigators. ‘They are governed by chiefs who
trace their ancestry back many generations. ‘The Melanesians make some
pottery, do grotesque carvings, use bows and arrows and spears for
hunting and fishing. They have men’s cults into which boys are initiated
and from which women are rigidly excluded.

The Micronesians live on the chain of small islands extending south
from Japan to Melanesia. They are characterized by a complex political
organization, great skill as navigators, and a simple food economy based
on the sea.

The peoples of the New Guinea mainland and the interior of some of
the larger islands of Melanesia can be grouped together as land peoples,
speaking complex or non-Melanesian languages.

The aboriginal inhabitants of Australia had one of the simplest
technologies to be found in the contemporary world. A hunting and food-
gathering people, their tools and weapons had to be carried with them,
and almost all the elaborations of their culture were expressed in songs,
dances and complicated marriage patterns which cannot be shown in
Museum cases.

ANTHROPOLOGY 195

PHILIPPINE TREE HOUSE.

Collections from the Philippines and Malaysia

This hall is reached by turning to the right in the South Sea Island
Hall.

‘The side aisles display Philippine Island objects. ‘The farther section
of the hall contains exhibits from other parts of Malaysia with an in-
teresting series of marionettes from Java.

At the right of the entrance is a case containing life casts of faces,
noses and hair from the different races represented in this hall, also
charts of stature and head form, with distribution maps.

In the center is a model of a Filipino bamboo-walled and _ thatch-
roofed house. At the far end, a native tree house dominates the scene,
and on the left may be seen the model of a woman weaving a garment on
a native loom.

The visitor should note that, like the African Negroes, the Malayan
tribes represented in this hall use iron tools. ‘The numerous iron weapons

196

— spears, battle-axes, and krises (daggers with serpentine blades) — are
especially remarkable.

On the left side of the hall are found a number of exhibits of native
krises, shields, fabrics, basketry and pottery. Pottery is not highly
developed in this area, but the textile arts flourish to a remarkable
degree. The industrial life of the Bagobo of Mindanao is particularly
well-illustrated in the collections.

Much more primitive in their culture than the other Malaysians are
the Negritos, a dark-skinned and frizzly-haired pygmy stock forming,
with like groups in other parts of the world, a distinct division of the
Negro race. They are everywhere hunters, using the bow and arrow,
and ignorant of agriculture. Their simple tools are shown in a table
case in the farther section of the hall.

The islands lying close to the coast of Asia have been subjected to
several migrations and to varying cultural contacts. ‘The present popula-
tion is predominantly Malay in origin, members of the great Mongolian
race. Their cultural arts include pottery, metal work and textile. The
metal work is especially fine in the weapon-making of Java and among
the Mohammedan inhabitants of the Philippines. Among the textiles
are exhibited the batik work of Java, the tie-dyeing of the Bagobo in the
Philippines, and fine textiles of Luzon.

They possess fowls and pigs, grow rice, and use the carabao, or water
buffalo, as a domestic aid in farming and transportation. ‘Their form of
the widespread Pacific canoe type usually has a double outrigger. ‘Their
weapons are blow-guns, bows and arrows, spears, and knives. In parts
of Melanesia, head hunting was formerly practiced and formed a striking
cultural feature in this area.

Although the Malay culture has deeply influenced all the peoples
of the area, influences from India and China have also been felt here;
the former affecting thought and philosophy, and the latter furnishing,
through commerce, cherished objects of art and use. More recently,
Mohammedanism has entered the islands and has become the prevailing
religion in some of them. About 300 years ago, Christianity and Euro-
pean culture were first introduced by the Dutch and the Spaniards.

Asiatic Ethnology

At the entrance to this hall to the right is a section given to a brief
exposition of the prehistory and early historic periods of Japan. The
exhibits on the left side illustrate in the main the life of the Chinese at
the turn of the century when the bulk of the collections was made, so
that many of the objects shown here no longer have a function in
Chinese life. Bamboo, porcelain, basketry, inlaid work, cloisonne enamel,
lacquer, farming implements, carvings in wood, ivory and stone, costumes,
and embroidery are shown to advantage. Several technological processes
are shown in detail, such as cloisonne and the history of printing.

ANTHROPOLOGY 197

CHINESE BRONZES. A set of three bronze ornaments inlaid with silver from the
Sung Dynasty, 960-1279 A.D. To the right is a bronze libation cup, probably used
in religious ceremonies, from the Shang Dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C.

CHINESE BRONZE BOWL. This large
bronze bowl has the original scroll
design characteristic of the Chou
Dynasty. Attributed to the Sung or
Ming Dynasty.

A PAIR OF CHINESE BRONZE HORSES. They may have represented the horses of
a chariot which has been lost. Ts In Dynasty.

AN EXAMPLE OF CHINESE CLOISONNE ENAMEL
FROM THE CHINESE COLLECTION OF THE MU-
SEUM.

A RELIGIOUS IMAGE, TIBET. The Victorious
Goddess of the Ushnisha, a feminine divinity,
known in Sanskrit as Ushnishavijaya and in
Tibetan as gtsug-tor-rnam-par rgyal-ma.

In the wall cases to the left of the entrance is a collection of ancient
Chinese bronzes, and adjacent to the tower at the left is the Whitney
collection of Lamaistic ritual objects from ‘Tibet, supplemented by cos-
tumes and household utensils used in daily life by the Tibetans.

Next to these is a series of the Vedic and Puranic gods of India.

The way of life of the island Asiatic peoples — Japan, Ainu, and
Korea — is shown in the west end of the hall. Of particular interest are
the two models of Japanese dwellings, an example of Japanese armor and
No drama masks.

Other peoples represented are some of the tribal groups such as the
Meiteis and Maring of the Assam-Burma region and the Chin and Kachin
of the Upper Chindwin River, Burma.

The right side of the hall is occupied by the Chukchi, Koryak, Tungus,
Yakut, Lamut, Yukaghir and Gold, all of whom live in Northeastern
Siberia including the Kamchatka Peninsula. The Koryak, for example,
are related in language to the Chukchi and Kamchadal, with whom they
share many cultural attributes. Like the Chukchi, they are divided into
a Reindeer and a Maritime branch, but differ from their neighbors in
the almost exactly equal size of these divisions. The Reindeer Koryak
live mainly on the flesh of their herds. The Maritime group depend
largely on fishing, while the hunting of sea mammals is also important
but relatively less so than among the Maritime Chuchi. The Reindeer
people live in movable tents. The stationary, partly underground house
of the Maritime division is illustrated by a model. Both divisions of the
Koryak wear clothing made of reindeer skins.

ANTHROPOLOGY 199

IVORY CARVING OF A BOY AND REINDEER
FROM THE YAKUT, EASTERN SIBERIA.

KORYAK MAN IN ARMOR.

Before contact with other peoples, the Koryak had no metal and made
all their implements by chipping stone. Several settlements were noted
for their iron technique, which may antedate the coming of the Russians,
since the Tungus and Yakut were both familiar with the blacksmith’s art.

The dressing of skins and the weaving of baskets by the coiled and
twined methods are important industries. Remains brought to light by
excavations of old dwellings show that the ancient Koryak knew how to
manufacture pottery. The Koryak have attained a high degree of per-
fection as carvers in wood, antler and ivory, and in the skillful handling
of furs in the manufacture of their cloth.

200 ANTHROPOLOGY

Drummond Collection of Jade

The famous DRUMMOND COLLECTION of carved Chinese jade,
amber, Japanese ivory, and sword-guards is in the Southwest ‘Tower on
the fourth floor, opening out of the South Sea Island Hall. This mag-
nificent collection gathered by the late Dr. I. Wyman Drummond
and presented to the Museum in his memory, is installed as a unit,
largely according to Dr. Drummond's original arrangement.

It is really a group of collections, each one of the greatest Importance
and beauty. The JADE COLLECTION alone is a rich and well balanced
series, representative of all periods and covering a cultural range of
more than thirty centuries. The left half of the room is devoted to jade
arranged by periods, while the right half is given over to AMBER,
IVORY, LACQUER, and BRONZE SWORD-GUARDS. The oriental
amber displayed is the finest of its kind in the world.

A unique composite piece of white jade, occupying the center of the
room, was a birthday gift to the Emperor Kien Lung from the officials
of his court. This assemblage of jade carvings consists of thirteen pieces
fashioned from purest white jade and fitted together. Surrounding the
central piece are twelve segments fitted together, each of which is carved
with a representation of one of the twelve terrestrial branches correspond-
ing to the signs of the zodiac.

A very fine piece of white jade of the Kien Lung period of renaissance
in glyptic art is in the form of a “Scepter of Good Luck” (Joo-i scepter).
On the long handle of this piece are carved in high relief the figures
ol the Eight Immortals, the half-mythical, half-historical personages so
olten represented in Taoist art. Each of these carries some characteristic
object, such as the flute of Han Hsiang-tzu, whose marvelous tone caused
flowers to grow and blossom instantly.

AN EMPEROR’S BIRTHDAY GIFT. An assem-
blage of elaborate carvings fashioned from
purest white jade and fitted together.

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IVORY HANDLED IRON WEAPONS OF THE MANGBETTU. The great sickle-shaped
knives were worn over the shoulder by the king and other prominent men when

they were sitting in council, partly as proof of the wearer’s readiness to strike.
At other times the knives were pushed under the belt.

MASK. IBO, NIGERIA.

African Ethnology

‘The order in this hall is roughly geographical. Thus, as the visitor
proceeds through the hall, he meets the tribes that would be found in
passing from south to north in Africa. The West African peoples are
represented along the left hand wall, the East African along the right
hand wall, and the tribes of the Congo around the central rectangle.

Nothing is more characteristic of the Negro culture than the art of
smelting iron and making iron tools. The process used by the African
blacksmith is shown in a group on the left at the entrance and the finished
products, such as knives, axes and spears, are amply displayed through-
out the hall. DVhe knowledge of the iron technique distinguished the
Negro culturally from the American Indian, the Oceanian and _ the
Australian.

A pictorial map indicates the various culture areas distinguished on
the continent. Clothing is either of skin, bark cloth, or loom-woven plant
fiber. The manufacture of a skin cloak is illustrated by one of the figures

ANTHROPOLOGY 203

in the group to the left of the entrance. Bark cloths from Uganda are
shown in the farthest right-hand section of the hall, while looms and
the completed garments are on view in the large central rectangle given
over to Congo ethnology. The most beautiful of the last-mentioned
products are the “pile cloths” of the Bakuba, woven by the men and
supplied with decorative patterns by the women. Very fine wooden gob-
lets, fetish figures, masks, and especially a series of ivories from the Congo,
bear witness to the high artistic sense and craftsmanship of the African
natives. The importance of musical accompaniment to their ritualistic
dances is demonstrated by the great variety of musical instruments.

A unique art is illustrated in the Benin case in the farther section
of the hall where the visitor will see bronze and brass castings made by
a process similar to that used in Europe in the Renaissance period.

The religious beliefs of the natives are shown by numerous fetishes
and charms, believed to give security in battle or to avert evils. Cere-
monial masks are shown, which were worn in native rituals.

204 ANTHROPOLOGY

CONSERVATION AND
GENERAL ECOLOGY

Wherever you go on land or water you will find living things. Usually
both plants and animals will be present, although the kinds will vary
greatly from place to place. These natural assemblages of plants and
animals that live together in the same area are spoken of as wildlife
communities. Ecology is the branch of natural history that concerns itself
with these wildlife communities. It seeks an understanding of (1) why
they vary from region to region, (2) how they function, (3) how each
species present has become specifically adapted to life in such a com-
munity, (4) what the relation of each is to the other members of the
community, and (5) what contribution each makes to the welfare of
the whole.

In any region local differences in slope, elevation and drainage, the
character of the underlying rock or glacial deposit, and the varying
impact of natural or man-induced “disasters’’, produce a series of different
wildlife communities. However, the basic structure and organization of
a wildlife community is everywhere the same. It must have, first of all,
plants capable of locking up and storing some of the sun energy that
falls on the area it occupies.

To perform this task plants borrow from their environment carbon
dioxide and water molecules, and, using these as raw materials, they

205

build sugar molecules in which some of the sun energy is locked up.
This energy is then used by plants to build other more complex plant
substances in which are incorporated additional elements such as nitro-
gen, phosphorous, sulphur, calcium and potassium. In time these become
the tissue of some part of the plant’s structure or of its seeds.

These plant substances are the base which supports a community’s
animal life, as well as its parasitic and saprophytic plants. Saprophytic
plants are those that feed on rotting wood and other dead organic matter.
Buds, leaves, fruits, sap and the many other forms into which these
plant materials are finally converted, serve as food for a host of different
plant-eating — herbivorous — animals. As most herbivorous animals are
rather specialized in their diet, the average community has places — or,
as an ecologist would say, niches — for many such species. Through the
process of digestion the various plant materials are absorbed into the
bodies of animals, where they provide the organic building blocks from
which animals fashion the tissues of their own bodies. Equally important
is the energy that these plant substances make available to animals.
All an animal has to do is to oxidize them, and the locked up sun energy
is released. It is this energy that makes an active life possible for an
animal and keeps it warm if it is warm-blooded.

Few natural communities stop here. They have, in addition, a lesser
number of flesh-eating — carnivorous — animals that differ from herbi-
vores in that they obtain their food supply of plant-originated organic
materials second-hand; in other words, rearranged into meat or fat. In
fact, those carnivores that prey largely on other carnivores may be said
to obtain their supply of sun energy and organic building blocks third-
hand. In many of the more complex wildlife communities the steps are
carried still further, and food chains with five. six or more links are not
uncommon. However, it takes a lot of plant material to support one
large animal at the end of a long food chain and a community never
has many individuals of such a species.

Man lives either by exploiting natural plant-animal communities
for products he can use or by destroying them and substituting artificial
communities that are more productive in terms of his specialized needs.
The latter we call farming, and we either directly harvest the plants for
human use or utilize tame herbivores like cows and chickens to harvest
them and turn them into products we can use. Farmers regard most
plant-eating wild animals as potential competitors. To keep their num-
bers down to a minimum, wise farmers encourage predators like the
insect-eating songbirds, moles and skunks, and the rodent-eating weasels.
hawks and owls. If conflicts arise because chickens and other domestic
animals are also attacked, it is often wiser to give such livestock better
protection than to kill the offending carnivore and lose its help in hold-
ing down crop-eating wild animals.

Conservation is often called applied ecology, because we must first
understand how plant-animal communities live and function if we are

206

to manage them wisely. It is therefore one of the chief tasks of the
Museum’s Department of Conservation and General Ecology to make
better known the natural laws to which man must conform if he wishes
to exploit land or a natural community without impairing its future
productivity.

As students of natural history we are also interested in the preserva-
tion of samples of every wild plant-animal community that is native to
this continent. Only if we are successful in this, will coming generations
of naturalists have an opportunity to study and enjoy all the forms of
wildlife now native to North America.

There are some plants and animals that cannot tolerate any distur-
bance by man of the community of which they are a part, so we seek to
have communities set aside as nature reserves, free from human inter-
ference or management of any sort. Such areas have a very special value
to students of natural history, as a wild plant or animal is only truly
and wholly understandable in terms of its role as a functional unit or
cog in the community of which it is an integral part. Its evolution
through the centuries to its present form, possessed of certain specific
habits and other attributes, took place in the setting provided by such
a community. Here it is continually subjected to the normal impact
of competition, predation, and the many other forces that operate within
a community on every one of its members — influences that are essential
to the continuing health of a species.

FELIX M. WARBURG MEMORIAL HALL

Here is dissected for you a typical rural area near New York City.
We show you something of both its geological and glacial history and its
more recent history under the impact of man. We show you its wildlife
communities and some of the artificial ones with which man replaces
them. Here you can see the history of man’s attempt to exploit more
fully the land and how nature re-establishes wildlife communities when
man, because of his failure to maintain soil fertility, abandons further
attempts at cultivation. Here are samples of the area’s soils, its bodies
of water and woodland, and the cycles of life and decay within the com-
munities that occupy them. You can see how differences in rocks and
soils tend to produce different wildlife communities. In short, we help
you to explore and understand the ecology of a typical landscape.

AN OCTOBER AFTERNOON NEAR STISSING MOUNTAIN. Stis-
sing Mountain, a hard mass of gneiss, 1s the most commanding topo-
graphical feature in the Pine Plains’ landscape. Here we see it in the glow-
ing colors that are one of the outstanding characteristics of the deciduous
— leaf-shedding — forest of Northeastern United States. Here, too, are a
few of the animals that form an integral part of the community — the
blue jay, red fox and dragon fly.

CONSERVATION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY 207

BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF STISSING MOUNTAIN AND VILLAGE OF
PINE PLAINS. This relief map shows you the Pine Plains area as it
appears today. Its mosaic of fields and forests is typical of most agricul-
tural communities in the glaciated Northeast. Local variations in such
factors as slope, soil texture and depth, nature of underlying rock and
proximity of water table, underlie such a pattern and are the subject
matter of the Hall.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND STRUCTURE. Pine Plains’ present
mountains and valleys are the end product of many millions of years
of weathering, rock formation and re-weathering, and earth movements
that have folded and fractured, submerged and elevated. Here are dis-
played the various rocks that are now exposed at the surface and some-
thing of the forms of life that lived here when these rocks were being
formed.

GLACIATION. Recently — geologically speaking — a great mass of ice
flowed down from the north over this area. As it moved, it scoured away
the soils and smoothed the rocky ridges. Some rock fragments were carried

as great boulders; others were ground to claylike fineness. Then, some-

10,000 years ago, the ice melted, leaving behind a rolling landscape of
hills and marshes, ponds and lakes. Because of the glacier we have
pockets of clay soil in one place, stony ones in another, and little or
none on the exposed ridges.

THE WATER CYCLE. The course that rain water takes after it falls

is indicated in a cross-section model of a typical rural landscape. The
relation of wells, springs and flowing streams to the underground zone
of saturation is indicated. Its upper level — the water table —is seen
to vary with both topography and the nature of the underlying sub-strata.
The sloping land on the right has been subjected to water erosion due to
improper farming and will no longer yield a living for the owner.

STISSING MOUNTAIN SCENE. A landscape is a mosaic of distinctive plant-animal
community units.

LANDSCAPE CROSS-SECTION. Water running downhill creates problems above
ground, but is an asset below.

SOILS AND SOIL CONSERVATION. Weathered rock minerals,
glacial debris and water-laid beds of sand and clay provided the raw
materials for the area’s soils. As these leached and plant remains became
mixed with their surface layers, soil was formed. Because of their diverse
origins, sandy and clayey soils, or that ideal intermediary, loam soil,
all occur within relatively small areas at Pine Plains.

LIFE IN THE SOIL. Beneath our feet lies a subterranean world that
teems with life. Here many insects spend part of their lives. Earthworms
and hundreds of smaller animals feed on plant and animal remains,
converting them into humus. Moles literally swim through the soil with
the help of their powerful feet, leaving tunnels that provide runways and
homes for chipmunks, mice, toads and insects.

ROOTS IN THE SOILS. The parts of a plant that occupy the soil are
no less important than those that reach upward into the air. Here you
see an enlarged feeding root and its absorbing root hairs. A magnified
soil section shows such a hair creeping through the air and soil solution
that occupies the spaces between the soil granules.

fee RP AION OF PLANTS TO GEOLOGY AND SOIL. In
glaciated areas like Pine Plains much of the underlying rock is covered
by deposits of rock debris that may have been carried many miles by the
glacier. Soils derived from such material show no correlation with the
underlying rock. On the higher areas such soil as may once have covered
the rocks was scraped away. Now, with the passing of the glacier,
weathering is slowly creating raw materials that pioneering plants are
turning into soil. Immature soils of this sort vary greatly, as they are
strongly influenced by the rock from which they have been derived.

CONSERVATION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY 209

BHITE-FPOOTES MOUSE

BELOW GROUND VIEW IN WINTER. The hibernating chipmunk sleeps out the
winter, but the deer mouse must forage nightly for food.

Usually, only a few plants are adapted for life in a given soil of this
sort and they serve as indicators of its presence. Here are samples of
four such soils derived from four of the area’s rock formations, together
with a few of their plants. We also see two lowland areas where an
excess of lime has created what are for this region most unusual en-
vironments.

ROTATION OF FARM CROPS IN DUTCHESS COUNT
Here are dioramas showing the appearance of the local crop-land in early
June, mid-July and early October. Here, also, are samples of some of
the commoner cultivated grasses — wheat, oats, rye, barley and timothy —
and various stages in the development of bean and pumpkin plants.
By changing from year to year the type of crop that is grown, the humus
content and fertility of the soil can be better maintained.

210

LIME LOVING PLANTS. Weathering limestone counteracts organic acids and pro-
duces the neutral soil needed by these orchids and other plants.

THE APPLE ORCHARD IN DUTCHESS COUNTY, N. Y. Apples are
the most important tree crop of Dutchess County. Here we see an orchard
in bloom, during the spraying of trees, and finally at harvest time. En-
larged models show the steps in the fertilization of the blossoms by bees
and in the life history of the Codling Moth that causes so many apples
to be “wormy.” Spraying to kill insect pests means the destruction of
both beneficial and harmful forms. After spraying, honey bees are often
placed in orchards to compensate for the loss of pollinating insects.

FERTILIZERS IN THE SOIL. Here two sods demonstrate the dif-
ference that the application of needed fertilizers can make in the growth
of pasture grasses. A model shows the appearance of the root of a legume
(member of the Pea Family) with its nodules containing bacteria that

CONSERVATION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY 21]

convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants. As other
nutrient elements, if lacking, must come from fertilizers, some of their
common sources are indicated.

CYCLE OF NUTRITION AND DECAY. This exhibit deals with photo-
synthesis and the circulation within a community of the inorganic
nutrient elements that plants use as raw material in the manufacture of
organic substances. It points out how first plants and then animals use
these substances both as a source of energy and as building blocks for
the construction of their own bodies. Ultimately, all organic materials
are oxidized and their stored energy released. With this last step all the
locked-up elements are freed and again available to plants to start the
process over. Only the stored sun energy is lost, and as long as the sun
shines a fresh supply of this is always at hand.

LIFE IN THE WATER. The cycling of nutrients in an aquatic environ-
ment follows the same pattern as on land. Here the most important
plants are minute, often one-celled algae that cloud sunlit fertile waters
with a green haze. Feeding on these plants are myriads of small animals
like the abundant water flea. ‘These in turn are consumed by small fish
that soon become the food of larger ones. As on land, scavengers and
bacteria finish the cycle and restore to the water the nutrient elements
that were originally used by the algae.

CYCLE ON NUTRITION AND DECAY. Only sun-energy is used up in nature’s cycles
of life and death.

POND PREDATORS. A series of pro-
gressively larger predators forms an
important part of the cycle of life
in any environment.

FROM FIELD TO LAKE. Ina glacial area like Pine Plains the surface
of the ground is very uneven. In many instances the top of the water
table may be above the surface, creating a pond or stream, or close to the
surface, creating a marsh. The roots of land plants cannot function in
saturated soil and are therefore confined to the zone above the water
table. Here we observe what a difference a few inches in elevation or in
soil texture can make in the character of the plant-animal community
that occupies the site. From left to right in this group we see:

1. A field with enough soil depth to raise corn, also a few crows that
are more likely to be seeking grubs than pulling corn.

2. A running trout-brook fed by cool underground water that slowly
seeps horizontally through the soil from points where the water table is
higher than the level of the brook.

3. A sedge meadow, bordered by shrubs, where dead plant material,
protected from oxidation by the high water table, is accumulating to
form a pocket of organic, muck soil. Here we see the shrub-dwelling
yellow-throat.

4. A red maple swamp growing on a muck pocket, with a ground cover
“of skunk cabbage and cinnamon fern. ‘The box turtle and red eft are
common inhabitants of moist woodlands.

CONSERVATION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY 213

5. A ridge of coarse glacial material only deep enough for trees like
paper birch, chestnut oak and hemlock, that are adapted to a thin soil
layer.

6. A pond border where the ground is close enough to the surface for
such emergent aquatic vegetation as cattails, and where muskrats, Vir-
ginia rails and bullfrogs are at home.

7. A shallow pond where catfish, yellow perch and pickerel thrive in
the warm water and a painted turtle suns itself among yellow water
lilies.

SEASONS IN THE LAKE. Four lake cross-sections indicate the tem-
perature variations that occur within a body of water throughout the
year. Water reaches its maximum density at 39° Fahrenheit. The effect
this has on the circulation and oxygen content at various levels is
indicated,

SEASONS IN THE WOODS. The progression of the seasons brings
much more marked changes in a deciduous — leaf-shedding — than an
evergreen woodland. In the spring the sunshine reaches the forest floor
in almost its full strength. Many of the small plants of the forest bloom,
produce a year’s store of food, and ripen their seed in the short interval
before the trees put on their leaves. Others, like the goldenrod and aster,
grow slowly all summer on the small amount of light that filters through
the canopy, and in the fall, as the leaves begin to drop, they burst into
sudden activity, blooming and forming seed in the matter of a few
weeks. The activities of woodland animals also change with the seasons
and many of the birds are only summer members of the community.

THE CHANGING FORESTS. For each of the earth’s climates there
is often one community that is more stable than any other. It is
called the climax community. At Pine Plains it is a deciduous forest
community with more or less hemlock mixed through it. Local sites
occupied at present by other communities tend to evolve towards this
climax community if not disturbed. In the foreground of the exhibit we
see an abandoned field in an early stage of a progression back to forest.
On different sites the early stages of the succession of communities that
leads ultimately to forest may vary greatly, as indicated in the small
dioramas. The complete suppression of forest reproduction that results
when cattle are allowed in a woodland is also shown.

MAN AND THE LAND. Here are five panels showing important
phases in the land-use history of the Pine Plains area: (1) The extensive
forest broken only here and there by small Algonquin Indian settle-
ments, Indians who practiced a primitive agriculture in order to supple-
ment the wildlife they harvested from the forest. (2) In the 1700's the
white settlers began to move in and clear away the forest to make fields.
(3) The soil, rich with the humus that had accumulated for centuries

214

—————S fs et. CUCU

under the forest, grew bountiful crops for over a century. (4) By the
1880's the failure to replace humus and the nutrient elements shipped
away in the crops, led to soil erosion, exhaustion of fertility, and abandon-
ment. (5) Today we see the area in a new cycle of argiculture based on
the extensive use of soil-building, erosion-preventing grasses and other
forage crops supplied with the nutrient elements they need by the prope
use of commercial fertilizers. The common agricultural tools of each
period are shown in miniature.

RECORDS OF TIME. Here you see some of the methods that enable
us to read the history of a landscape. Small ponds left by the melting
of ice blocks gradually fill with plant remains in which are trapped
wind-blown pollens. Protected from oxidation by water, this material
gradually turns into layer after layer of peat. Spruce pollen in a peat
layer bespeaks a cool, wet climate, while oak pollen indicates a warm,
dry climatic interval.

Glacial waters are loaded with clay-forming rock flour. In quiet lakes
this settles to the bottom. Seasonal variations in the character of the
sediment enables us to distinguish each year’s deposit. Thus, we can
determine how long it took the glacial ice to disappear completely from
the area.

NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS

A forest is far more than just an assemblage of trees. In this Hall we
deal with forests as complete plant-animal communities. Because of local
variations in such factors as slope, soil and moisture, a forest landscape
will generally contain examples of more than one type of forest com-
munity. Each community will be dominated by tree species that have
become especially adapted for life on a particular site. “These dominant
trees set the stage, as it were, for a host of smaller associated plants and
a vast complex of animals that are supported by the over-all plant
community.

Some types of forest communities are sharply separated from neigh-
boring ones. More often, one type will merge into another over a broad
transition area. In such transition zones the abundance or frequency
of occurrence of certain trees will increase, while others decrease. Trees
that may be dominant in one community will often persist in small
numbers in an adjacent one.

The normal or characteristic forest of a region is the relatively stable,
mature forest — capable of reproducing itself for generations on the same
ground — that occupies the most favorable sites of the area, sites that
provide deep, moist but well drained, fertile soil where wind and other
climatic factors are normal.

The Hall of Forests will contain dioramas showing ten regional
groups of forest communities. Many will portray not only the typical
forest community of the most favorable sites, but one or more of the

CONSERVATION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY 2175

associated types that occur on dryer, wetter or otherwise less favorable
areas for tree growth. The hall will also contain displays that will
acquaint you with such topics as —

1. The characteristic soil and soil life of various forest communities.

2. The wildflowers and other minor plants characteristic of different
forests.

3. ‘The forest animals and the food chains that link them to the plant
community.

4. The value of forests to man and how forests should be treated.
5. How forests reproduce themselves.

At the entrance of the Hall you see a large 16 foot cross-section of a
1340-year-old Big Tree from the King’s River sequoia grove on the west
flank of the Sierra Mountains of California; also a smaller cross-section
of a redwood log from the Coast Range of California.

Three of the dioramas are now on display:

The SUGAR MAPLE GROUP shows a scene in early spring on a farm
in Black Dome Valley in the Catskill Mountains of New York. In the
foreground is a sugar house where sap from the tapped maples is being
boiled down to syrup. In the background you see the north flank of
Blackhead Mountain covered with a Northern Hardwood Forest in which
sugar maple, beech, yellow birch and hemlock are the dominant trees.
In the valley the cutting of hemlock for tan bark and of beech and
birch for fuel has converted this forest into an almost pure stand
of sugar maple.

The WHITE PINE—HEMLOCK—NORTHERN HARDWOODS
FOREST GROUP is located near Lake Sunapee, N. H. Here we see a
slope where lumbering, fire or a storm destroyed the forest 100 or so
years ago, leaving the site open and sunny enough for seedlings of white
pine and the very shade-intolerant red pine to thrive. Now we see these
pines maturing and the shade-tolerant hardwoods — beech, sugar maple.
yellow birch — and hemlock coming in to re-establish the stable regional
forest type.

The SOUTHERN HARDWOODS FOREST GROUP is located on
the edge of a cove-like bench at about 3500 feet elevation on the Ten-
nessee side of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the Southern
Appalachians. In the group we see a sweet buckeye, a tulip tree, a white
basswood and a silver bell tree. The time is late April, and dogwood,
Frazier’s magnolia and silver bell are in bloom and the ground is carpeted
with wildflowers. ‘This area appears to have been continuously occupied
by a forest community for the past sixty million years. It is one of the
world’s richest forests in species, as some 130 trees occur within the
park and some two dozen now reach their maximum size here.

216 CONSERVATION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY

POPULAR
VERSUS
SCIENTIFIC

WORDS

Every task of man has its own special words. Doctors, sailors, lawyers,
shoemakers, scientists, cooks and cattlemen — all have their own word
lists that they use in their work. Our trouble is that we cannot be familiar
with all of these occupations and their special words.

Living languages grow and change in meaning with daily use. For
example, take two English words, PREVENT and LET. PREVENT
used to mean KNOW IN ADVANCE. “He prevented her every wish”
did not mean that she didn’t get what she wanted. It meant that he
could tell beforehand what she wanted. Today, PREVENT means
STOP SOMETHING BEFORE IT HAPPENS.

LET used to mean STOP. In Shakespeare’s time a man might say,
“Let me not!” meaning “Stop me not!”” But today, LET means PERMIT
or ALLOW.

Common names also change with locality. Every species of animal
may have scores, if not hundreds, of local names. Even the same name
may not mean the same thing in different regions that speak the same
language. The WHITING of England is not found in America, but the
HAKE of England is the WHITING of New England, while the HAKE
of Delaware Bay is a totally different fish that has nothing to do with the
other two. Again, the English LING and the LING of New Jersey are
different fishes.

It is plain, then, that scientists must have an international language.
The solution has been to make up a word list from one or two “dead”’
languages that will not grow and change as time goes by. Sometimes
words from other languages may be employed. Sanskrit and Hebrew
would have served, but early scientists knew Greek and Latin better.

217

To avoid confusion, scientific names are given to animals and plants.
All scientists will know these names. Our domestic dog is “dog” in
English, “hund” in German, “hond” in Dutch, “chien” in French, “perro”
in Spanish and “cao” in Portuguese. But all scientists — American, Eng-
lish, German, Dutch, French, Spanish or Portuguese — will know that
CANIS FAMILIARIS is a dog in any dialect.

The Museum visitor may be surprised to find, after reading a label,
that after each common name of an animal there are two words in a
foreign language — usually Latin and Greek in combination. For in-
stance, after Robin, you will find "TURDUS MIGRATORIUS; after
Herring, CLUPEA HARENGUS. Every known animal has been given
scientific names whether it has a common name or not.

But why TWO scientific names? The two names have two functions.
The Black Duck is ANAS RUBRIPES. ANAS is the generic name — it
indicates relationship. Every surface-feeding duck is ANAS, as the
Mallard, ANAS PLATYRHYNCOS; the Pintail, ANAS ACUTA; the
Teal, ANAS CRECCA. The second name, beginning always with a small
letter to set it off, is unique. It specifies the particular species. It is the
specific name.

To apply the same system to human names, let’s take John Smith.
The scientist reverses his name thus — SMITH JOHN. SMITH is his
generic or relationship name. All members of his family will be named
SMITH. But when we add JOHN to his relationship name we now have
a specific name, a unique name. SMITH JOHN cannot be confused
with SMITH PETER, SMITH BILL or SMITH CHARLES.

In addition to using Latin and Greek names, scientists also use short-
cut descriptive words. It is harder to write simple language than it is
to write scientific language. It also takes more words and more space.
Scientists compress their words to save time and space.

Let us take PROGNATHOUS as an example. We may say that one
type of primitive man was prognathous. PROGNATHOUS is a descrip-
tive word made up of Latin and Greek words. PRO- is a prefix meaning
BEFORE or FORWARD. GNATHOS is a Greek word meaning JAW.
The sufix -OUS means HAVING THE QUALITY OR PRESENCE
OF SOMETHING. Therefore, PROGNATHOUS, part by part, means
FORWARD-JAW-PRESENCE or, more simply, HAVING A JAW
THAT STICKS OUT. PROGNATHOUS is a time-saving, short-cut
word. But it takes many words to explain what it means.

We have gone around the fifty-eight halls of the Museum, reading
labels. We have picked out words that we thought were least familiar to
everyone. If you are reading a label and come across a word like PROG-
NATHOUS or PECTORAL, you can find what it means in the word
list below. If you find words not on our list that you think ought to be
there, please note them and pass them on to any Information Desk. Your
suggestion will be given to the right people.

218

THE WORD LIST
ABERRANT, straying from the usual course; differing from the type
of its group.
ALBINO, a person, animal, or plant lacking normal coloring matter.

ALLUVIAL, pertaining to formations deposited by rivers or floods.
Alluvial plains are the flood-plains of rivers.

ARBOREAL, living or situated among trees.

ARCHAEOLOGY, the systematic study of man, his relics, remains and
records.

AVIFAUNA, the birds of a given region.
BOREAL, northern.

CALCAREOUS, composed of, or containing, limestone or calcium car-
bonate. A clam shell is calcareous.

CARNIVORE, a meat-eater. A lion is a carnivore.

CELT, an ancient tool or weapon of stone, shaped like an axe.
CERAMIC, pertaining to pottery.

CRUSTACEAN, a lobster, crab, crawfish or shrimp is a crustacean.
CULM, stem or stalk, as of grasses.

CULTURE, the sum total of everything a group is, does, has, and
believes in.

DECOCTION, the liquid produced by boiling a substance.
DETRITUS, loose fragments or particles of rock.

DIURNAL, active during the day. The eagle and the sparrow are
diurnal birds.

DORSAL, pertaining to, or placed on or near, the back.

EFFIGY, a figure or image representing the whole or part of a person.
ENVIRONMENT, one’s surroundings.

EPIPHYTIC, growing on the outside of another plant, mostly on trees.
EVERTED, turned backward or outward.

EVOLUTION, a succession of changes by which the forms of organisms
are modified, usually from the simple to the complex.

FAUNA, all the animals living in a given area.
FLORA, all plant life growing without cultivation in a given area.

POPULAR VERSUS SCIENTIFIC WORDS 219

GRAMINIVORE, a grass-eater. A horse is a graminivore.

GREGARIOUS, living in flocks, herds or communities. Pigeons, cows
and men are gregarious.

HERBIVORE, feeding on herbs or other vegetable matter.

HIBERNATION, passing the winter in a secluded place, in sleep or
near-sleep.

HIEROGLYPHIC, picture-writing in which the figures of objects take
the place of signs or letters.

INSECTIVORE, insect-eater.

INTRUSION, the forcing of masses of molten rock into or between other
rocks; a mass of such rock.

INVERTEBRATE, an animal without a backbone.
LATERAL, pertaining to, or placed near, the side.
LEGUMINOUS, related to the pea family.

MELANISTIC, excessive darkness of the eyes, hair, fur, or skin, due
to deposits of pigment; the opposite of albinistic.

METALLURGY, the art or science of extracting metal from its ore.

METAMORPHOSIS, a change in form, structure and function resulting
in development; the changes that occur from the larva and pupa to
the fully developed insect.

NOCTURNAL, active after dark. The owl is a nocturnal bird.
OCCIPITAL, pertaining to the lower back part of the head.

PARASITIC, living on or in another organism and getting nourishment
from it.

PECTORAL, pertaining to the breast.
PEDICELS, stalks or supporting parts.

PHYSIOGRAPHY, physical geography, dealing in description rather
than in theory or explanation.

PREDATORY, preying on other animals.

PREHENSILE, formed to grasp or coil around, as the tail of a monkey.
PRIMEVAL, belonging to the first ages; ancient.

PROBOSCIS, a long, flexible snout, as the trunk of an elephant.
PROGNATHOUS, having a jaw that sticks out.

220 POPULAR VERSUS SCIENTIFIC WORDS

——

—_— °°

RUMINANT. an animal that chews the cud, as deer or cows.
SAPROPHYTIC, living on dead organic matter.
SCANDENT, climbing or aiding to climb.

SEDIMENTARY, formed originally by material deposited by water
or air.

SESSILE, fixed to or attached.
SHERDS, fragments of pottery.
STELA, an upright slab or tablet of stone.

STRATIGRAPHY, the order and relative position of the layers of the
earth’s crust.

TERRESTRIAL, pertaining to the earth.
TUNDRA, the treeless plains found in the arctic regions.
VENTRAL, pertaining to, or placed on or near, the abdomen.

VERTEBRATE, an animal with a backbone.

221

The Museum Shop

Make your visit to the Museum still more memorable by visiting the Museum
Shop. It is one of the largest and most interesting museum shops in the world.
Here, in several departments, you will find not only books, cards and souvenirs,
but a wide assortment of merchandise of unusual interest that is seldom
available elsewhere.

RARE AND EXOTIC GIFTS. Alert shoppers are rapidly “discovering” this
unique, exciting source for gifts of special character. Original African wood-
carvings, handsome reproductions of actual Museum specimens, unusual
jewelry, authentically-costumed dolls of all nations, fine native crafts of all
kinds — these are only a few of the distinctive items to be found there. Many
articles are the only ones of their kind, many are handsome decorators’ items,
and all are of a character not found in ordinary shops.

SOUVENIRS. Many interesting mementos of your Museum visit will be
found such as models of prehistoric and present day animals in glass, plastic
and metal, novel paper weights, beautiful full-color photographs of Museum
exhibits, special natural history records of bird songs, native dances, etc. For
children there are toys, games, arrow heads, shark teeth, sea horses, bird
pictures, and numerous other inexpensive articles intriguing to youngsters.

SHELLS, MINERALS, INSECTS. The Museum Shop offers an outstanding
collection of mineral specimens, semi-precious stones, sea shells from all parts
of the world, and mounted butterflies and other insects for the amateur
collector. ‘hese are available singly or in ready-made collections.

PUBLICATIONS. A large library of books and pamphlets is available for
your examination and purchase. These cover the field of natural history from
anthropology to zoology, for both the amateur and advanced naturalist.

The Museum Shop is located on the first floor in the 77th Street Entrance Hall.

The Planetarium Shop

In the American Museum-Hayden Planetarium you will find a shop catering
to the interests of both young and old in astronomy. Hourglasses, barometers,
meteorites, star finders, zodiac cards, small microscopes and souvenirs of many
kinds are among the objects on sale. It is also an excellent source for books on
the sun, moon and stars, on weather, space travel, life on other planets, tele-
scope making. and other subjects in the field of astronomy.

}
-

—

Natural History Magazine

The American Museum of Natural History publishes one of the world’s most
distinctive and distinguished magazines, NATURAL HISTORY. In it
eminent writers, scientists and explorers present in highly readable fashion
the inside story of their research, travels, investigation and discoveries. From
the floor of the oceans to the outermost stars of the galaxy, from the dim begin-
nings of life on prehistoric shores to the probable nature of life in the world
of tomorrow — such is the reader’s range of vision in a publication devoted at

all times to truth and to the better understanding by man of the world in
which he lives.

NATURAL HISTORY Magazine is filled with unusual photographs, maps
and drawings. The handsome, full-color covers portraying natural history
subjects of rare beauty and interest are prized by every subscriber. The sub-
scription price of $5 a year enrolls you as an Associate Member of the Museum.
You receive a Membership Card, Membership Certificate, and other desirable

benefits in addition to a year’s subscription to NATURAL HISTORY
Magazine.

The Museum also publishes JUNIOR Natural History Magazine for young
people between 8 and 14 years of age. This highly informative and entertain-
ing publication is read avidly by both boys and girls and is valued by all
adults who wish to see young people receive the right introduction to the
infinite variety and inspiration of the world of nature. A year’s subscription
costs only $1.50.

THE
AMERICAN
MUSEUM
OF
NATURAL
HISTORY

Invitation

You are cordinally invited to enjoy the privileges and benefits
of membership in the AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL
HISTORY.

Your Museum is a powerful cultural influence in the nation,
an invaluable asset to science and education, and a rewarding
personal experience for all who wish to assist in its work by
becoming Members. Your own participation is welcomed in any
of the following Classes of Membership you choose.

MEMBERSHIP CLASSES

LIFE MEMBERSHIP — Benefits 1 through 10 .............. $300
SUPPORTING MEMBERSHIP — Benefits 1 through 9...... $100 a year
CONTRIBUTING MEMBERSHIP — Benefits 1 through 9... $ 50 a year
SUSTAINING MEMBERSHIP — Benefits 1 through 9 ...... $ 25 a year
ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP — Benefits 1 through 7 plus 8 or 9 $ 15 a year
ASSOCIATE MEMBERSHIP — Benefits 1 through 6 ...... $ 5 a year

Interested people in all parts of the world find that distance is no barrier to
their enjoyment of Associate Membership status and benefits in the American
Museum of Natural History. Residents of the Greater New York area find the
Annual and Sustaining Memberships especially rewarding.

MEMBERSHIP BENEFITS

1. Membership Card for purse or wallet.

Membership Certificate suitable for framing.
3. Admission to Members’ Room.

4. Subscription to NATURAL HISTORY Magazine, the Museum’s unique
and beautiful magazine, treasured by members as one of the most distinctive
and interesting publications in the nation.

5. Ten per cent reduction on books purchased from the Museum Shop.
6. President’s Annual Report on request.
7. Two admissions to Hayden Planetarium.

8. Admission for the Member and a guest to the Members’ Lecture Series (10
or more annually). This Series brings to the Members the nation’s foremost
lecturers on natural history subjects. They present full-length natural color
motion pictures of extraordinary beauty and interest. The lecture evenings
are pleasant, relaxed social occasions at which the Members enjoy coffee, music,
comfortable lounge chairs, and the opportunity of talking with well-known
authors and scientists. ‘They bring to all present rare and memorable insights
into the infinite variety of nature. (At prevailing admission prices for pro-
grams of equal merit, this Series would cost at least $30.)

9. Admission for the Member and two guests to Adventure Series (10 or more
illustrated lectures annually). These Saturday morning lectures are of the
same high calibre as the Members’ Lecture Series. While they are presented
especially for the children of Members, adults find them equally worthwhile.
The Adventure Series has long been cherished by Members who value for their
children a sound, constructive, stimulating introduction to the wonders of the
world in which they live. (This Series, also, would cost at least $30.00 at single
admission prices to lectures of similar merit elsewhere.)

10. Admission to Staff Functions arranged for higher class Members.

To obtain your Membership Card, ask any Museum attendant to direct
you to the office of the Membership Secretary. Or write to Membership
Secretary, American Museum of Natural History, New York 24, New York.

“The
museum
is not
four walls
surrounding a
cloistered
lifes
itis the
heart of a
system
circulating
throughout
the

world.”

DR ALBERT E. PARR,

Director

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

| 100051174

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Full text of "General guide to the exhibition halls of the American Museum of Natural History"

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